' 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 


LIBRARY 


ITT 


Rural    School 
Agr  icult  ur  e 


EXERCISES  FOR  USE  WITH  ANY  TEXT-BOOK 

OF  AGRICULTURE,  OR  WITHOUT 

A    TEXT- BOOK 


-2-  2.  /  3^ 

BY 

CHARLES  W.  DAVIS,  B.S.,  M.S.A. 

Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Biology 
North  Georgia  Agricultural  College 


ILL  U  S  T  R  A   TED 


NEW    YORK. 
ORANGE      JUDD      COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1907,  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED   ix    U.   S,   A. 


TO 
THE  MEMORY  OP  MY  BROTHER, 

W.  A.   D. 

IN  REMEMBRANCE  OP  OUR  BOYHOOD  DAYS 
ON  THE  FARM 


PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  this  little  book  two  classes 
of  students  have  been  considered  by  the  author. 
First,  there  are  those  who  expect  to  become  teachers 
in  rural  schools  where  agriculture  is  required,  and 
who  have  had  little  training  in  agriculture,  not  only 
in  the  subject  matter,  but  in  methods  of  presenting 
the  subject  to  students.  This  book  then  is  designed 
in  part  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  normal  and 
summer  schools.  The  greatest  barrier  in  the  prog- 
ress of  agricultural  education  in  rural  schools  is  the 
lack  of  thoroughly  trained  teachers  in  agriculture. 
Secondly,  there  are  those  in  rural  districts,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  will  continue  to  live  upon  the  farm, 
and  whose  minds  should  be  awakened  to  the  fact 
that  the  problems  of  the  farm  are  great  enough  to 
enlist  all  the  brain  power  they  can  summon.  Let  us 
once  establish  in  the  mind  of  the  farm  boy  an  intel- 
lectual insight  into  the  problems  of  the  farm,  and 
the  ever  increasing  exodus  of  the  most  enterprising 
young  men  of  our  rural  districts  to  the  city  will  be 
checked. 

This  book  is  a  manual  of  exercises  covering  many 
phases  of  agriculture.  Feeling  that  in  many  in- 
stances the  so-called  nature  study  has  been  largely 
sentimental  and  urban  in  its  leanings,  the  exercises 
have  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  enlist  the 
interest  of  the  boys  of  the  farm.  The  successful 
farmer  of  the  future  must  be  an  experimenter  in  a 
small  way.  This  work  should  begin  in  the  public 
schools.  Students  should  be  taught  to  think,  and  to 


PREFACE  Vll 

work  out  some  of  the  principles  of  scientific  agricul- 
ture. If  an  experiment  helps  the  pupil  to  think,  or 
makes  his  conceptions  clearer,  then  it  fills  a  useful 
purpose. 

The  French  minister  of  education,  in  giving  in- 
structions "to  assist  the  masters  of  rural  elementary 
schools  in  teaching  the  first  rudiments  of  agricul- 
ture," says:  "Instruction  in  the  elementary  princi- 
ples of  agriculture,  such  as  can  be  properly  included 
in  the  program  of  primary  schools,  ought  to  be  ad- 
dressed less  to  the  memory  than  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  children.  It  should  be  based  on  the  observa- 
tions of  the  every-day  facts  of  rural  life,  and  on  a 
system  of  simple  experiments  appropriate  to  the  re- 
sources of  the  school  and  calculate4  to  bring  out 
clearly  the  fundamental,  scientific  principles  under- 
lying the  most  important  agricultural  operations. 
Above  all,  the  pupils  of  the  primary  school  should 
be  taught  the  reasons  for  these  operations,  and  the 
explanations  of  the  phenomena  which  accompany 
them." 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  especial  obliga- 
tions to  Prof.  C.  H.  Mathes,  of  Maryville  College,  for 
reading  the  proof  of  the  whole  book  and  for  valuable 
criticisms ;  to  Mr.  B.  F.  Williamson,  for  many  new 
drawings.  Thanks  are  due  to  many  others  for  illus- 
trations used,  for  which  special  credit  is  given  as  they 
appear.  His  thanks  are  also  due  to  Prof.  J.  M.  John- 
son, of  the  University  of  Georgia,  for  many  valuable 
suggestions. 

CHARLES  W.  DAVIS. 

DAHLONEGA,  GA.,  1907. 


CONTENTS 


EXERCISE  PACK 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES i  i 

PLANTS 33  50 

;  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 57  95 

CORN 80  126 

WHEAT  AND  OATS 97  161 

COTTON 102  166 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 108  178 

MILK 113  185 

FRUITS 118  191 

HOME  GROUNDS 130  213 

INSECTS 131  216 

SPRAYING 141  237 

GLOSSARY 241 

APPENDIX 245 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


1  Model  barn  of  the  Iowa  experiment  station  (showing 

round  silo) Frontispiece 

2  Changes  in  matter 3 

3  Chemical  action  of  copper  sulphate  and  zinc    ...  18 

4  Common  harrow 40 

5  Spring-tooth  harrow 40 

6  Disk  harrow 41 

7  Tap  root  of  alfalfa 51 

8  Fibrous  root  of  raspberry 51 

9  Fleshy  root  of  parsnip 51 

10  Air  roots  of  poison  ivy .     .     .     .  52 

1 1  Brace  roots  of  corn 53 

12  Sprouting  beans 55 

13  Diagram  of  corn  stalk,   showing  loss  of  moisture 

through  leaves 58 

14  Effect  of  light  on  green  leaf 60 

15  Experiment  with   oxygen  and    carbon    dioxide    in 

the  air 62 

16  Cross-section  of  hardwood  log 65 

17  Buds  of  peach 66 

18  Twining  stems:  morning-glory  and  hop 67 

19  Forms  of  trees:  diagram  of  spruce  and  peach  tree    .  69 

20  Cross-section  of  cherry  flower 71 

21  Typical  stamens 72 

22  Various  forms  of  pistils 73 

23  Strawberry  blossoms 79 

24  Rose  cutting  taking  root 80 

25  Effect  of  strong  solutions  on  plant  growth  .     .    .    .  116 

26  Nodules  on  soy  beans 124 

27  Very  poor  ears 134 

28  Shape  of  ears 135 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

29  Ears  of  various  lengths 136 

30  Ears  of  various  girths 136 

31  Various  butts 137 

32  Ear  tips 137 

33  Arrangement  of  rows 138 

34  Indentation 138 

35  Space  between  rows 139 

36  Closely  packed  kernels 139 

37  Size  of  cob 140 

38  Forms  of  kernels 141 

39  Large  and  small  germs 141 

40  Prize  ear  in  an  Iowa  contest 142 

41  Prize  ears  at  Iowa  State  fair 142 

42  Chart  of    curves  showing  range  of   tasseling  and 

silking  period 146 

43  Detasseling  corn 153 

44  Harvest  scene 159 

45  Cotton,  showing  luxuriant  growth 167 

46  Chart,  showing  graphically  the  variations  in  number 

of  bolls 171 

47  An  ideal  cotton  plant 173 

48  Bottle  and  measure 189 

49  Forms  of  apples 192 

50  Grafting  tool '  .     .     .     .  199 

51  Cleft  grafting 200 

52  Whip  grafts 202 

53  Common  budding 205 

54  Cuttings 207 

55  Results  of  correct  and  incorrect  pruning      ....  210 

56  Diagram  showing  results  of  incorrect  pruning     .     .  211 

57  A  country  home 212 

58  School  grounds  before  improvements 213 

59  School  grounds  after  improvements 214 

60  Plan  of  improved  school  grounds 215 

61  Insidious  flower-bug 217 

62  A  cutworm,  pupa  and  moth 217 

63  Bald-faced  hornet 218 

64  Insect  net 219 

65  Killing  bottle     ...*..... 220 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 

riGURR  PACK 

66  Spreading  board 221 

67  Correct  methods  of  pinning  various  insects      .     .     .  222 

68  Green  striped  locust 224 

69  A  dragon  fly 225 

70  Dog-day  harvest  fly 227 

71  Common  flesh  fly 229 

72  Ground  beetle  and  larva 231 

73  A  click  beetle 231 

74  Cabbage  butterfly 235 


Rural  School  Agriculture 


EXERCISE  1 

1  ^-1  3  4 
CONDITIONS  OF  MATTER 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  the  three  conditions  of  matter. 

Material  needed:  Three  tumblers,  one-half  pint  Hour, 
water,  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Place  upon  the  table  three  tumblers ;  half  fill  one 
with  flour;  another  with  water ;  and  leave  the  third 
containing  only  air.  Push  a  pencil  into  each  and 
remove  it.  Note  the  difference  in  the  results. 

How  do  you  account  for  this  difference? 

Can  you  find  the  surface  of  the  contents  of  each 
tumbler? 

From  this  experiment  we  can  derive  three  defini- 
tions upon  the  condition  of  matter : 

1.  Matter  whose  particles  are  not  free  to  move 
among  themselves  is  said  to  be  solid. 

2.  Matter  whose  particles  are  free  to  move  among 
themselves  and  which  has  a  definite  surface  is  said 
to  be  liquid. 

3.  Matter  whose  particles  are  free  to  move  among 
themselves  and  which  has  no  definite  surface  is  said 
to  be  gas. 


2  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Could  matter  exist  except  in  one  of  the  three 
forms  mentioned  above? 

2.  Which  of  the  three  is  the  commonest  form  of 
matter? 

3.  Can  you  name  a  substance  which  may  be  con- 
verted from  one  form  to  another? 

Facts. — Plants  take  food  from  the  air  in  a  gaseous 
form.  We  usually  apply  plant  food  to  the  soil  in  a 
solid  form,  but  it  cannot  be  taken  up  by  plants  until 
it  is  changed  to  a  liquid  form.  Most  animals  take 
solids  as  food. 


EXERCISE  2 

THE  TWO   CHANGES   IN   MATTER 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  the  difference  between  a  physical  and 
a  chemical  change. 

Material  needed:  Tumblers,  salt,  piece  of  glass,  copper 
coin,  nitric  acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Put  a  small  amount  of  salt  in  a  tumbler;  add 
water  and  stir  until  it  is  dissolved.  Put  a  few  drops 
of  this  solution  on  a  piece  of  glass  and  heat  gently 


FIG.    2 — CHANGES    IN     MATTER 
PHYSICAL  CHANCE   (AT  LEFT)          CHEMICAL  CHANGE  (AT  RIGHT) 


4  RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

until  it  becomes  dry.  What  have  you  remaining  on 
the  glass?  Taste  the  substance. 

2.  Place  a  copper  coin  in  a  tumbler  and  add  a  few 
drops  of  nitric  acid.  What  takes  place?  Notice  the 
color  of  this  new  solution.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  this 
solution  on  a  piece  of  glass  and  dry  as  before.  In 
which  case  is  there  a  new  substance  formed? 

A  chemical  change  results  in  a  new  substance. 

A  physical  change  does  not  result  in  a  new  sub- 
stance. 

State  the  kind  of  change  in  each  of  the  following : 

1.  The  burning  of  lime. 

2.  The  slaking  of  lime. 

3.  The  rusting  of  iron. 

4.  The  melting  of  ice. 

5.  The  freezing  of  water. 

6.  The  baking  of  bread. 

7.  The  souring  of  milk. 


EXERCISE  3 


HOW  PARTICLES  OF  MATTER  ARE  HELD 
TOGETHER 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  the  difference  between  adhesion  and 
cohesion. 

Material  needed:  Putty  or  chewing  gum. 


DIRECTIONS 

Press  a  piece  of  putty  or  chewing  gum  against  the 
wall,  and  leave  it  there. 

What  prevents  its  falling? 

We  call  the  force  that  holds  the  putty  against  the 
wall  adhesion.  Compare  the  particles  of  putty  with 
the  particles  of  the  wall. 

We  call  the  force  that  holds  the  particles  of  putty 
together  cohesion. 

We  now  have  two  other  definitions  in  regard  to 
the  properties  of  matter: 

Adhesion  is  the  force  that  holds  unlike  particles 
together. 

Cohesion  is  the  force  that  holds  like  particles  to- 
gether. 

QUESTIONS 
What  force  causes  the  following: 

1.  Soil  particles  to  stick  together? 

2.  A  piece  of  rope  to  resist  breaking? 


RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

3.  Two  pieces  of  steel  to  stick  when  welded? 

4.  Plastering  to  remain  on  the  wall? 

5.  A  sponge  to  take  up  water? 

6.  A  bow  to  spring  back  after  being  bent? 
Does  heat  affect  adhesion  and  cohesion? 


EXERCISE  4 

CONDENSATION 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:     To  learn  the  meaning  of  condensation. 
Material  needed:  Water,  teakettle,  piece  of  glass. 

DIRECTIONS 

Boil  some  water  and  allow  the  escaping  steam 
to  come  in  contact  with  a  cold  slate  or  piece  of  glass ; 
notice  the  formation  on  the  slate. 

What  is  it? 

Which  is  cooler,  the  slate  or  the  vapor? 

What  difference  would  be  noticed  if  the  slate 
should  be  very  hot? 

Facts. — Condensation  is  changing  a  vapor  into  a 
liquid.  A  liquid  takes  in  heat  when  it  vaporizes,  but 
when  a  vapor  condenses,  it  gives  up  heat. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  happens  when  we  breathe  into  cold  air? 

2.  Does  sprinkling  the  floor  in  very  warm  weather 
make  the  room  more  comfortable? 

3.  Why  does  moisture  appear  on  the  outside  of  a 
pitcher  of  cold  water  upon  a  summer  day? 

4.  How  are  fog,  cloud,  snow,  and  rain  formed? 

5.  Why  do  we  sometimes  put  water  into  a  cellar 
when  there  is  fear  that  the  vegetables  may  freeze? 


EXERCISE  5 

ABSORPTION 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  nature  of  an  absorbent. 

Material  needed:  Charcoal,  broken  stone,  cotton  batting, 
round  bottle,  vinegar. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Put  a  piece  of  'freshly  burned  charcoal  under 
water  and  observe  what  collects  on  the  surface  of 
the  charcoal.    What  is  it?    Where  did  it  come  from ? 
What  caused  it  to  come  to  the  surface  ? 

2.  Hold  a  piece  of  freshly  broken   stone  under 
water  in  the  same  way.    Do  you  get  the  same  re- 
sult?   Why? 

Charcoal   is   porous   and   absorbs   air   and   other 
gases. 

3.  Break  the  bottom  out  of  a  round  bottle,  invert 
it  and  insert  into  the  base  of  the  neck  a  small  bit 
of  cotton.    Fill  to  a  height  of  2  inches  with  powdered 
charcoal,    and    pour   into   the   bottle    some    vinegar; 
catch  what  filters  through  in  a  vessel  and  compare 
the  color  of  the  filtered  with  that  of  the  unfiltered 
vinegar. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  has  the  charcoal  changed  the  color? 

2.  Why  is  charcoal  valuable  for  filtering? 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  9 

3.  What  other  substances  may  be  used  as  a  filter? 

4.  Why  is  spring  water  so  clear? 

5.  Is  the  soil,  under  field  conditions,  an  absorbent? 

6.  Logs  which  have  been  in  water  for  a  long  time 
sometimes  sink.    Can  you  explain  this? 


EXERCISE  6 

ABSORPTION   (Continued) 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  other  examples  of  absorption. 
Material  needed:  Flower  pot.,  salt,  two  tumblers,  beans. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Close  the  hole  in  an  ordinary  flower  pot,  put 
some  water  in  it  and  throw  in  a  handful  of  salt. 
After  a  day  or  two  what  do  you  observe  on  the  out- 
side of  the  pot  and  what  do  you  think  is  the  reason 
for  the  change? 

2.  Fill  a  rather  thin  bottle  with  peas  or  beans; 
leave  unstoppered  and  place  the  bottle  under  water 
for  several  days.    What  happens?     Give  the  cause 
for  this  result. 

3.  Into  a  tumbler  containing  a  very  strong  salt 
solution  put  a  handful  of  beans.    Put  a  handful  of 
beans  into  another  tumbler  containing  only  fresh 
water.    After  three  days  observe  and  note  which  lot 
is  swollen  more.  How  did  the  salt  solution  affect  the 
amount  of  water  absorbed? 


EXERCISE  7 

EVAPORATION 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  study  the  conditions  which  influence  evap- 
oration. 

Material  needed:  Tin  can,  tumbler,  shallow  dish. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Put  a  cup  of  water  upon  the  stove,  but  do  not 
let  it  boil.    Is  there  anything  passing  from  the  water 
into  the  air?    What  is  it?    Does  it  come  from  the 
surface  or  from  below? 

Heat  the  water  until  it  boils.  What  do  you  now 
see  coming  from  the  water?  Is  it  formed  at  the  sur- 
face or  below  the  surface?  Can  you  now  distinguish 
between  evaporation  and  boiling? 

2.  Put   like   quantities   of  water   into   a   narrow- 
necked  bottle,  a  tumbler,  and  a  shallow  dish.    Which 
evaporates  the  most  quickly?    Which  most  slowly? 
Account  for  this  difference. 

3.  Moisten   a  slate  and  observe  how  quickly  it 
dries.     Moisten  the  surface  of  the  slate  again  and 
fan  the  air  with  it.     Is  there  any  difference  in  the 
rapidity  of  evaporation? 

4.  Moisten  the  slate  again  and  hold  over  a  lamp 
or  a  stove ;  notice  if  there  is  a  still  greater  difference 
in  drying.     Can  you  explain  this? 


12  RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Summarize  the  conditions  which  affect  the  rapid- 
ity of  evaporation  by  filling  the  blanks  below. 

The the  extent  of  surface,  the 

the  rapidity  of  evaporation. 

The  motion  of  the  air the  rapidity 

of  evaporation. 

An  increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  air 

the  rapidity  of  evaporation. 

Evaporation  will  be rapid  when 

the  air  is  dry  than  when  it  is  moist. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kind  of  weather  is  most  favorable  for 
rapid  evaporation? 

2.  Why  do  the  blades  of  corn  curl  up  during  dry 
weather? 

3.  Would  level  culture  or  ridge  cultivation  cause 
a  soil  to  lose  the  more  moisture?     Why? 


EXERCISE  8 

COMPOSITION   OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE 

TIME:   WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  represent  graphically  the  percentage  of  the 
various  constituents  of  the  atmosphere. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE 

Oxygen 20.60  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 77-J8  per  cent. 

Water  vapor 1 .40  per  cent. 

Carbon  dioxide 04  per  cent. 

Argon 78  per  cent. 

DIRECTIONS 

With  diagram  in  Exercise  108  as  a  model,  con- 
struct a  diagram  showing  graphically  the  composi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere. 

Facts. — Besides  the  substances  named  above,  we 
should  name  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  and  ozone  (an  ac- 
tive form  of  oxygen).  Ninety-seven  per  cent,  of  all 
materials  which  are  built  into  the  tissues  of  plants 
comes  from  the  atmosphere.  Only  a  small  portion 
comes  from  the  soil. 


EXERCISE  9 

PROPERTIES  OF  CARBON  DIOXIDE 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  by  simple  experiments  some  of  the 
properties  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Material  needed:  Mason  jar,  candle,  wire,  lime-water, 
marble  chips,  rubber  tube,  tumbler,  hydrochloric  acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Mount  a  piece  of  candle  on  a  J-shaped  wire  and 
lower  it  into  a  quart  Mason  jar. 

What  is  in  the  jar  besides  air? 

2.  Put  some  chips  of  marble  into  the  jar  and  cover 
with  water;  add  a  sufficient  amount  of  hydrochloric 
acid  to  keep  up  a  vigorous  chemical  action  for  a 
while.    Carbon  dioxide  is  being  formed,  as  shown  by 
the  effervescence. 

Lower  the  candle  slowly  into  the  jar. 
What  happens? 

Will  carbon  dioxide  support  combustion? 
Will  air  support  combustion? 
Lower,  by  means  of  a  string,  a  small  beaker  of 
lime-water    and    observe    what    happens.     This     is 
caused  by  the  carbon  dioxide  uniting  with  the  lime 
to  form  calcium  carbonate. 

3.  Pour  more  hydrochloric  acid  into  the  jar  until 
chemical  action  again  becomes  vigorous;   place  one 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  15 

end  of  a  rubber  tube  in  the  jar  and  suck  the  other 
end ;  when  you  taste  the  carbon  dioxide  (it  is  not 
poisonous)  lower  the  outer  end  of  the  tube  into  a 
tumbler.  Pour  the  contents  of  the  tumbler  upon  a 
candle  flame. 

How  does  it  affect  the  flame? 

What  kind  of  taste  does  carbon  dioxide  have? 

Why  is  it  wise  to  lower  a  lighted  candle  into  the 
bottom  of  an  unused  well  or  mine? 

In  what  respect  is  carbon  dioxide  like  water? 

How  do  plants  purify  the  air? 

How  do  animals  and  plants  differ  with  respect  to 
carbon  dioxide? 


EXERCISE  10 


ASSIMILATION  AND  RESPIRATION 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  the  difference  between  assimilation 
and  respiration. 

Material  needed:  Note-book,  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Observe  the  contrast  between  assimilation  and 
respiration  given  below.  Notice  that  one  is  sub- 
stantially opposite  to  the  other.  This  table  is  taken 
from  Goodale's  Physiological  Botany. 


Assimilation  Proper 


Respiration 


Takes  place  only  in  cells  con- 
taining chlorophyll. 

Requires  light. 

Carbonic  acid  absorbed,  oxy- 
gen set  free. 

Carbohydrates  formed. 

(Energy  is  stored.) 

The  plant  gains  in  dry  weight. 


Takes    place    in    all    active 

cells. 

Can  proceed  in  darkness. 
Oxygen    absorbed,    carbonic 

acid  set  free. 

Carbohydrates  consumed. 
(Energy  is  brought  into  use.) 
The  plant  loses  dry  weight. 


EXERCISE  11 

PLANTS  SELECTING  THEIR  FOOD 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object :  To  show  artificially  how  plants  may  select  their 
food. 

Material  needed:    Bluestone,  three  earthenware  cups, 
three  lamp  chimneys,  sine,  red  ink,  salt,  bladder. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Prepare  a  strong  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
and  place  in  an  earthen  or  china  cup  or  shallow  dish. 
The  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  bluestone  in 
water.    Tie  a  piece  of  bladder  around  one  end  of  a 
lamp  chimney,  partly  fill  with  water,  and  set  it  in  the 
glass  containing  the  copper  sulphate  solution.    Drop 
into  the  chimney  a  piece  of  zinc. 

2.  Prepare  a  second  solution  by  dissolving  eosin 
or  red   diamond   dye  in   water.     Red   ink   will   do. 
Place  in  this  solution  a  lamp  chimney  prepared  as 
above  with  the  pieces  of  zinc. 

3.  Prepare  a  third  solution  by  dissolving  common 
salt  in  water,  and  place  in  this  another  lamp  chimney 
prepared  as  in  the  two  cases  above. 

In  the  first  condition,  the  copper  sulphate  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  copper  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  cop- 
per sulphate  passes  through  the  membrane,  and 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  zinc  a  chemical 


i8 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


change  takes  place.    The  copper  is  separated  from 
the  sulphuric  acid  and  is  deposited  on  the  zinc. 

In  the  second  condition,  the  eosin  or  coloring  mat- 
ter is  not  taken  up  by  the  zinc,  but  is  taken  up  by 
the  membrane,  which  is  highly  colored. 

EXPLANATION 

In  the  third  condition,  the  salt  in  solution  passes 
through  the  membrane  and  remains  in  its  original 


COPPER  SULPHATE 
SOLUTION 


FIG.  3 — CHEMICAL   ACTION  OF  COPPER   SULPHATE  AND  ZINC 

strength.  It  is  not  taken  up  by  the  glass,  the 
membrane,  nor  the  metal.  The  passing  of  solutions 
through  a  membrane,  as  in  this  experiment,  is  called 
osmosis. 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  19 

This  experiment  shows  artificially  how  plants  se- 
lect their  food  by  absorbing-  by  osmosis  certain  ele- 
ments to  the  partial  or  total  exclusion  of  others. 
When  a  plant  is  grown  in  a  solution  of  sodium 
nitrate,  all  of  the  nitrogen  will  be  absorbed  and  util- 
ized, while  the  sodium  (unless  it  be  a  trace)  is  left  in 
solution. 


EXERCISE  12 

THE  NATURE  OF  SOLUTIONS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  the  nature  of  solutions. 

Material  needed:  Alcohol,  camphor  gum,  shallow  dish, 
tumblers,  marbles,  fine  seeds,  sugar,  hot  and  cold  water. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Dissolve  a  bit  of  camphor  gum  in  a  small  bot- 
tle of  alcohol ;  pour  a  small  part  of  this  solution  into 
a  shallow  dish  and  leave  until  the  alcohol  has  evap- 
orated.    Observe  that  the  camphor  remains  in  the 
dish.    We  say  the  camphor  has  been  dissolved,  and 
explain  this  by  supposing  the  camphor  has  been  sep- 
arated into  particles  too  small  to  be  seen,  and  that 
these  tiny  particles  fit  in  between  the  particles  of  al- 
cohol.   Illustrate  this  by  filling  a  glass  with  marbles ; 
then  pour  small  shot  or  fine  seeds  into  the  spaces 
between  the  marbles.     By  this  we  may  understand 
also  that  water  is  porous. 

2.  Use  two  glasses ;  put  some  hot  water  into  one, 
and  cold  water  into  the  other.    Into  each  glass  put 
the  same  amount  of  sugar,  stir  rapidly,  and  notice  that 
the  sugar  disappears  first  in  the  hot  water.     In  the 
hot  water  the  particles  are  farther  apart,  hence  it  has 
more  pore  space  and  can  take  up  the  sugar  faster. 
Evaporate  the  water  in  one  of  the  glasses  to  dryness 
and  recover  the  dissolved  sugar. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  21 

3.  You  will  observe  that  a  teakettle  in  which 
water  is  boiled  usually  becomes  coated  inside  with 
a  whitish  or  brownish  deposit.  Water  contains  cer- 
tain amounts  of  mineral  matter  in  solution,  and 
when  the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  kettle  the 
mineral  matter  remains  behind  just  as  in  the  experi- 
ment with  the  camphor  and  sugar. 

Facts. — Plants,  unlike  animals,  cannot  use  solid 
food ;  it  must  be  dissolved.  Water  dissolves  plant 
food  from  the  soil  grains  and  carries  it  in  solution 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  plant.  This  mineral  mat- 
ter in  solution  which  is  taken  from  the  soil  consti- 
tutes the  ash  of  plants. 


EXERCISE  13 

EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  AMOUNTS  OF  AIR  UPON 
PLANT  GROWTH 

TIME:  FROM  APRIL  UNTIL  OCTOBER 

Object:  To  find  how  decreasing  the  amount  of  air  by 
excessive  amounts  of  water  affects  the  growth  of  plants. 

Material  needed:  Five  tumblers,  seeds,  soil,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill  five  tumblers  almost  full  of  rich  soil  and  plant 
the  same  number  of  seeds  in  each.  To  the  first  add 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  water  each  day;  double  the 
amount  for  each  succeeding  tumbler.  After  three 
weeks  there  should  be  a  vast  difference  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  young  plants.  Which  plant  seems 
to  have  done  the  best?  Did  the  plant  receiving  the 
least  amount  of  water  suffer?  If  so,  why? 

Weigh  the  soil  which  seemed  to  have  the  right 
amount  of  water,  dry  thoroughly  in  a  stove  and 
weigh  the  dry  soil.  Calculate  the  per  cent,  of  water. 

Saturate  with  water  the  same  soil  used  above ; 
weigh,  dry  in  a  stove,  and  weigh  again.  Calculate 
the  per  cent,  of  water  in  the  saturated  soil.  Com- 
pare the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  with 
amount  of  water  for  best  growth. 


EXERCISE  14 

PLANTS  RESISTANT  TO  DROUTH 
TIME:  DURING  WARM  WEATHER 

Object:    To  find  some  plants  little  affected  by  drouth. 

Material  needed:  Potted  cactus,   houseleek,    begonia, 
squash  or  cucumber. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  For  this  exercise  select  the  following  plants: 

Prickly  pear  cactus. 

Houseleek. 

Begonia. 

Squash  or  cucumber. 

2.  Let  the  plants  be  growing  in  pots  and  well 
rooted.     Water  the  four  plants  and  set  them  in  a 
warm,  sunny  place.     Observe  every  24  hours,  and 
when  any  plant  begins  to  wilt,  water  and  remove  it. 
Keep  a  record  of  the  time  required  for  each  plant  to 
begin  to  wilt. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  some  plants  wilt  sooner  than  others? 

2.  Do  you  think  this  is  due  in  any  way  to  the 
structure  of  the  leaves? 

3.  What  kind  of  soil  or  exposure  is  natural  to  each 
of  the  plants  used  in  this  exercise? 


EXERCISE  15 

THE  EFFECT  OF  COLD  ON  PLANTS 
TIME:  DURING  FREEZING  WEATHER 

Object:    To  determine  the  effect  of  cold  on  plants. 
Material  needed:  Plant  in  pot,  snow,  potatoes,  can. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Place  a  pot  plant  in  a  cool  place  and  apply  snow 
to  the  soil  in  the  pot  for  two  or  three  days ;  use  care 
so  as  not  to  allow  the  plant  to  freeze.     Let  the  pot 
stand  in  a  pan  to  catch  the  water  formed  by  the 
melting  of  the  snow.    Why  do  the  leaves  wilt? 

2.  Expose  some  potatoes  to  the  cold  until  they  are 
frozen ;  divide  in  two  lots,  and  place  one  lot  in  a 
can  of  water  chilled  by  ice.     Keep  them  in  the  can 
until  the  water  reaches  the  temperature  of  the  room. 
This  should  take  several  hours.     Place  the  second 
lot  near  the  fire  so  the  potatoes  may  thaw  quickly. 
Observe  any  differences  in  the  appearance  of  the 
two  lots. 

3.  Sprinkle  some  frosted  plants  with  cold  water 
and  cover  to  protect  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Later,  compare  the  treated  with  the  untreated  plants. 

Facts. — In  freezing,  the  cells  are  ruptured  and  the 
sap  oozes  out  into  the  tissues ;  when  the  plant  is 
thawed  out  slowly,  the  cells  have  time  to  re-absorb 
the  sap.  If  the  plant  is  thawed  quickly,  the  sap  can- 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  25 

not  be  taken  up  and  the  plant  will  die ;  then,  too,  if 
the  thawing  is  done  quickly  the  disorganized  proto- 
plasm cannot  readjust  itself. 

Cold  prevents  the  formation  of  chlorophyll  or 
green  coloring  matter  in  the  leaves,  checks  respira- 
tion, or  the  breathing  process  of  plants,  ruptures  the 
cells,  and  produces  chemical  changes  in  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  cells.  The  most  familiar  change  is  the 
conversion  of  starch  into  sugar. 


EXERCISE  16 

ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  MATTER 
TIME:  DURING  THE  WINTER 

Object:  To  show  that  hay  contains  both  organic  and 
inorganic  matter. 

Material  needed:  Dry  hay,  shovel,  piece  of  wire. 

DIRECTIONS 

Place  some  very  dry  hay  in  a  shovel  and  heat  on 
top  of  a  good  bed  of  coals.  After  a  few  minutes,  if 
the  contents  are  still  black,  break  up  the  pieces  with 
a  wire  and  continue  to  heat  until  the  charred  re- 
mains become  gray.  The  organic  matter  has  now 
passed  into  the  air,  while  the  inorganic  matter  is  left 
behind  in  the  form  of  ash.  The  ash  is  mineral  mat- 
ter which  the  plant  has  taken  from  the  soil. 

The  ash  of  plants  contains  the  following  ingredi- 
ents :  potash  2  to  8  per  cent. ;  phosphoric  acid  I  to 
2  per  cent. ;  and  lime  30  to  35  per  cent. 


EXERCISE  17 

MODES  OF  DISSEMINATING  SEEDS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  classify  plants  according  to  their  mode  of 
disseminating  seeds. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  plants  and  place  them  in  the  col- 
umns below  according  to  their  means  of  disseminat- 
ing their  seed. 


Wind 

Water 

Animals 

Mechanical 
Contrivances 

Artificial 
Means 

EXERCISE  18 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  classify  plants  of  your  section  according 
to  De  Candolle's  classification. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

De  Candolle  classifies  the  species  of  plants  as 
shown  below,  also  giving  number  of  each.  Find  the 
number  of  plants  of  each  group  in  your  community 
and  fill  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  table: 

Classification  of  Species  World 

Cultivated  for  the  underground  parts 32 

Cultivated  for  the  stems  or  leaves 65 

Cultivated  for  the  flowers  or  their  envel- 
opes   4 

Cultivated  for  their  fruits 77 

Cultivated  for  their  seeds 64 

Cryptogam  cultivated  for  whole  plant I 


Write  a  list  of  each  class. 


EXERCISE  19 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS  AS  ANNUALS, 
BIENNIALS,  AND  PERENNIALS 

TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  classify  plants  with  respect  to  their  duration 
of  life. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

ANNUALS  are  herbs  which  spring  from  seed, 
blossom,  mature  their  fruit  and  seed,  and  then  die, 
root  and  all,  the  first  season.  They  are  fibrous 
rooted. 

BIENNIALS  grow  the  first  season  without  blos- 
soming, usually  store  up  food  in  their  roots,  blossom 
and  seed  the  following  season,  and  then  die  com- 
pletely. 

PERENNIALS  live  and  blossom  year  after  year. 

DIRECTIONS 

From  a  list  of  plants  furnished  by  the  instructor, 
fill  in  blank  columns  below  according  to  duration 
of  life. 


Annuals 


Biennials 


Perennials 


EXERCISE  20 

NATURE'S  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 
TIME:  WHEN  GERMINATION  BEGINS  IN  THE  SPRING 

Object:    To  determine  Nature's  depth  and  rate  of  plant- 
ing seeds. 

Material  needed:  Five  shallow  pans  or  boxes. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Select  a  spot  of  ground  which  has  not  been  dis- 
turbed for  one  season.    Mark  off  a  space  12  inches 
square  and  from  this  remove  a  layer  of  soil,  I  inch 
deep,  and  place  in  a  shallow  pan  or  box.    Repeat  the 
process  until  you  have  removed  six  layers  of  soil 
to  a  depth  of  6  inches.    Care  must  be  taken  so  that 
the  surrounding  soil  shall  not  fall  into  the  excavation 
while  the  soil  is  being  removed. 

2.  Label  the  pans  and  put  in  a  warm  place.  Keep 
moist  and  wait  for  the  seeds  to  germinate.    As  the 
seedlings  appear  above  the  ground,  pull  them  up  and 
keep  a  record  of  the  number. 

3.  Mark  off  another  square  by  the  side  of  the  first 
one,  and  count  the  number  of  seedlings  that  appear. 
Watch  from  time  to  time  and  count  the  number  that 
die. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Which  layer  of  soil  contained  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  seedlings? 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  31 

2.  Why  did  a  number  of  seedlings  die? 

3.  How    many  of   the   young   plants   could   you 
identify? 

4.  Go  into  a  forest  and  note  all  evidences  of  a 
struggle  for  existence  among  the  trees  and  plants 
growing  there. 

5.  Is  the  struggle  greatest  between  plants  of  the 
same  kind,  or  between  those  of  different  kinds? 


EXERCISE  21 

NUMBER  OF  SEEDS  PRODUCED  BY  PLANTS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  study  the  productiveness  of  plants. 
Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  The  following  data  are  given  in  Kerner's  Nat- 
ural History  of  Plants: 

a.  An  average  hedge  mustard  plant   (Sisymbrium 
sophia)  yields  730,000  seeds. 

b.  Fleabane    (Erigeron   canadense)    yields    120,000 
seeds. 

c.  Shepherd's      purse      (Capsella      bursa-pastoris) 
yields  64,000  seeds. 

d.  Plantain   (Plantago  major)  yields  14,000  seeds. 

e.  Henbane    (Hyoscyamus     niger)    yields     10,000 
seeds. 

2.  Starting  with  one  plant  of  each  of  the  species 
mentioned,  and  supposing  each  seed  to  ripen  and 
grow,  how  many  seeds  would  be  produced  each  yeaf 
up  to  and  including  the  fifth?    Allowing  40  plants 
to  the  square  yard,  at  this  rate  of  production  how 
long  would  it  take  each  species  to  cover  the  State? 


EXERCISE  22 

VALUE  OF  BIRDS  TO  THE  FARMER 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  learn  whether  it  pays  to  protect  the  birds. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

Facts. — Insects  feed  on  the  young  and  tender  foli- 
age of  growing  plants,  but  no  part  of  the  plant  is 
entirely  free  from  them — some  insects  attack  the 
seed,  others  the  fruit,  stem,  or  roots.  Birds  prey 
largely  upon  injurious  insects.  Not  only  do  they  de- 
stroy great  numbers  of  insects,  but  they  eat  great 
quantities  of  weed-seeds  as  well.  The  State  of 
Illinois  loses  annually  $20,000,000  by  the  ravages  of 
insects.  This  means  about  56  cents  an  acre. 

DIRECTIONS 

Suppose  the  damage  done  by  insects  in  your  State 
is  50  cents  an  acre,  what  would  be  the  damage  for 
the  entire  State? 

Suppose  there  are  four  birds  to  the  acre,  how 
many  would  there  be  in  the  State? 

If  each  bird  eats  20  insects  a  day  (a  fair  estimate), 
how  many  insects  would  be  destroyed  during  the 
months  of  June,  July,  and  August? 

Suppose  one  half  of  the  birds  in  the  State  should 
eat  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  of  seed  each  day  for  three 
months,  how  many  pounds  of  weed-seeds  would  be 
destroyed? 


EXERCISE  23 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  learn  the  best  system  of  rotation  for  your 
section,  and  compare  this  system  with  the  one  practiced 
on  the  farm  at  home. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

The  system  of  rotation  given  below  is  the  one 
practiced  by  the  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. Study  it  carefully  and  give  reasons  for  each 
crop's  position  in  the  table.  Construct  a  table  show- 
ing the  system  of  rotation  as  practiced  on  your  home 
farm,  and  let  it  be  discussed  before  the  class.  Con- 
trast your  system  with  the  one  given  below.  What 
farmer  in  your  community  has  the  best  system? 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Corn 

Crimson 
clover 

Cotton 

Wheat 

Cow  feat 

Rye  for 
pasture 

QUESTIONS 

I.  What  crops  might  be  substituted  in  the  system 
above  ? 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  35 

2.  What  crops  are  nitrogen  gatherers? 

3.  What  crops  furnish  forage  for  live  stock? 

4.  What  crops  on  account  of  their  tillage  bring 
about  weed  destruction? 

5.  What  crops  would  be  considered  ready-money 
crops  ? 


EXERCISE  24 

FIELD  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 
TIME:  SUMMER  AND  FALL 

Object:    To  make  a  comparison  of  the  five  great  cereals. 

Material  needed:  Fields,  paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  in  the  field  a  number  of  stalks  each  of  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  and  tabulate  your  re- 
sults as  follows : 


M 

«  5 

il 

*v 

|3 

2  M 

>'! 
<* 

**<  « 

"I 

ii 

*| 

o  % 

K« 

c^ 

'o  « 

sa 

O   3 
^- 

ii 

z* 

.  u 

>  a 

No.  Days 
from  Seeding 
to  Maturity 

Corn  

Wheat  

Oats  

Rye... 

Barley  

EXERCISE  25 

STAND  OF  CLOVER 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  find  why  some  farmers  fail  to  get  a  good 
"catch"  of  clover. 

Material  needed:  Garden  rake,  clover  seed,  scythe. 

DIRECTIONS 

Lay  out  two  small  plots  on  a  piece  of  ground 
which  has.  been  previously  seeded  to  wheat  or  oats. 
During  the  latter  part  of  March  seed  each  plot  to 
clover.  When  the  oats  are  just  heading,  cut  them 
from  one  plot,  and  leave  the  other  plot  unmolested. 
The  second  plot  may  be  harvested  when  the  grain  is 
ripe. 

Observe  late  in  the  fall  to  see  which  plot  of  clover 
has  withstood  the  dry  weather  better. 

Facts. — The  majority  of  farmers  sow  clover  in 
fields  which  have  already  been  seeded  to  wheat  or 
oats.  The  result  is,  if  there  is  a  drought  during  the 
following  summer,  a  great  number  of  young  clover 
plants  die  for  lack  of  water.  The  large  amount  of 
water  needed  to  ripen  the  grain  depletes  the  water 
in  the  soil,  so  that  the  young  plants  suffer.  It  takes 
about  325  pounds  of  water  to  ripen  one  pound  of 
grain,  so  in  cutting  the  oats  before  they  ripen,  we 
help  the  clover  plants  through  the  summer. 


EXERCISE  26 

SEEDING  ALFALFA 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  how  to  seed  alfalfa. 

Material  needed:  Plow,  harrow,  subsoil  plow,  alfalfa 
seed,  manure,  inoculating  material. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Select  a  well  drained  loam  soil  oi>  the  home 
farm.     It  should  have  a  good  subsoil.     Turn,  sub- 
soil, and  harrow  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized.   Much  depends  upon  getting  a  good  seed  bed. 

2.  Apply  a  good  coating  of  stable  manure  and  har- 
row until  it  is  well  incorporated  with  the  soil.    You 
cannot  succeed  with  alfalfa  if  your  soil  is  acid.    Ex- 
ercise 59  gives  instructions  for  testing  the  acidity 
of  soils.    If  you  find  the  soil  is  acid,  you  can  neutral- 
ize it  by  an  application  of  lime. 

3.  You  may  sow  the  seed  either  in  the  fall  or  in 
the  spring.     Fall  seeding  is  better,  provided  it  is 
done  early  enough  for  the  young  plants  to  get  a  good 
start  before  freezing  weather.    Being  bothered  with 
troublesome  weeds  is  the  greatest  objection  to  seed- 
ing in  the  spring. 

4.  If  seeded  in  the  fall,  sow  about  the  first  week 
in  October  in  the  South ;  in  September  in  the  north- 
ern States.    Sow  at  the  rate  of  20  pounds  an  acre. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  39 

5.  On  most  soils  of  the  South  inoculation  is  neces- 
sary. Find  if  it  is  necessary  in  your  section.  Write 
to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
inoculating  material.  Instructions  are  sent  with 
each  package. 

Another  method  of  inoculating  is  to  secure  soil 
from  a  field  where  alfalfa  thrives  well  and  broad- 
cast it  over  the  field,  either  before  or  after  it  is 
seeded.  From  one  to  three  bushels  of  soil  is 
sufficient. 


EXERCISE  27 

HARROWS 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  find  the  number  of  harrows  in  the  com- 
munity, the  kind  of  harrows,  and  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  used. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 


FIG.   4 — COMMON    HARROW 


FIG.    5 — SPRING-TOOTH    HARROW 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  4! 


FIG.  6 — DISK    HARROW 

EXPLANATION 

There  are  three  classes  of  harrows; 

1.  Those  that  press  or  fine  the  soil — common  har- 
rows or  drags. 

2.  Those  that  lift  and  tear  the  soil — spring-tooth 
harrows. 

3.  Those  that  slice  the  soil  in  action — disk  har- 
rows. 

DIRECTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  farmers  in  your  community 
who  possess  harrows,  and  name  the  class  to  which 
each  harrow  belongs. 

Let  each  student  write  an  essay  on  the  use  of  the 
harrow. 


EXERCISE  28 


CUTTING  POTATOES  FOR  PLANTING 
TIME:  MARCH  OR  APRIL 

Object:  To  learn  whether  the  number  of  eyes  or  the 
size  of  the  pieces  affects  the  yield  of  potatoes. 

Material  needed:  Hoe,  knife,  potatoes. 

DIRECTIONS 

In  the  school  garden,  or  at  home,  lay  out  six  rows 
of  equal  length  and  equal  distance  apart.  Use  one 
row  only  for  each  size.  The  following  sizes  or  meth- 
ods of  cutting  may  be  used : 

1.  Whole  potatoes. 

2.  Halves. 

3.  Quarters. 

4.  Two  eyes. 

5.  One  eye. 

6.  Peelings. 

Harvest  the  potatoes,  weigh,  note  the  number  of 
large  potatoes  and  tabulate  the  results  as  follows : 


Whole 
Potatoes 

Halves 

Quarters 

Two  Eyes 

One  Eye 

Pee 

ngs 

i) 

v 

V 

(j 

ii 

«j| 

fcS 

If 

V 

o-c 

55  3 

MJB 

JS 

5C   3 

11 

.1 

55   3 

I] 

o| 

si 

•JS 

ll 

rt  2 

^  2 

tt 

55* 

PQ 

*£ 

1^ 

a 

I* 

a 

5* 

sl^ 

EXERCISE  29 

HILLING  POTATOES 
TIME:  SPRING  AND  SUMMER 

Object:  To  determine  whether  ridge  cultivation  or 
level  culture  should  be  practiced  in  growing  potatoes. 

Material  needed:  Potatoes,  hoe,  plow. 

DIRECTIONS 

Ask  the  students  to  plant  the  potatoes  at  home. 
Divide  the  patch  into  two  parts.  Cultivate  one  part 
level  just  as  corn  is  cultivated,  but  hill  up  the  other 
half.  At  digging  time  note  any  difference  in  the 
yield. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  gives  the  greater  yield? 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference? 

3.  Which  method  requires  more  labor? 

4.  Which  part  loses  more  moisture?    Why? 


EXERCISE  30 

A  COMPARISON  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 

OF  YOUR  STATE  WITH  THOSE  OF 

OTHER  STATES 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  whether  the  products  of  farms  of  this 
State  compare  favorably  with  the  products  of  other  States. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Take  your  data  from  the  Year-book  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1905)  and  con- 
struct graphic  charts,  using  chart  below  as  a  model. 
Compare  the  following  products  : 

1.  Corn :  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  crop. 

2.  Cotton :  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  crop. 

3.  Wheat :  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  crop. 

4.  Oats :  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  crop. 

5.  Hay :  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  crop. 


1.  Horses:  number,  value,  and  average  price  per 
head. 

2.  Mules:  number,  value,  and  average  price  per 
head. 

3.  Milch  cows:  number,  value,  and  average  price 
per  head. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


45 


4.  Sheep :  number,  value,  and  average  price  per 
head. 

5.  Hogs:  number,  value,  and  average  price  per 
head. 


YIELD  OF  CORN  PER  ACRE 


Iowa 

Illinois 

Virginia 

Alabama 

South  Atlantic  States. . . 


39.1 
38.8 
19.  • 
12.8 
14.1 


EXERCISE  31 

CROP  SUMMARY 
TIME:  FALL  AND  SPRING  TERMS 

Object:  To  teach  students  how  to  keep  a  complete 
record  of  crops  and  the  management  of  fields. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Use  the  form  given  below,  and  let  each  student 
keep  a  complete  record  of  one  or  more  fields  on  the 
farm  at  home.  Make  an  effort  to  secure  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  patrons  in  this  work.  This  should  be  a 
means  of  inducing  the  farmers  to  keep,  year  by  year, 
a  record  of  the  production  of  each  field.  Impress 
upon  students  the  importance  of  being  exact  in  keep- 
ing records. 

Name County District P.  O 

CROP 

Season Previous  Crop Kind  of  Soil No.  of  Acres  — 

SOIL  PREPARATION 


Date  of  plowing  

Date  of  cultivation        .     ... 

Implement  used 

Implement  used  

Cost  of  preparing  seed  bed.  .  . 

Cost  of  plowing  

Condition  of  land   when 
seeded 

RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 
CROP  SEEDING  AND  CULTIVATION 


47 


Date  of  seeding  

Cost  of  fertilizer.     .       . 

Rate  of  seeding  

Date  of  germination  

Cost  of  seed  

Dates  of  cultivation  

Kind  of  fertilizer  

Implement  used  

Am't  of  fertilizer  an  acre  

Cost  of  cultivation  

HARVEST  AND  YIELD 


Date  of  harvest 

Time  from   seeding   to  har- 
vest  

Cost  of  harvest 

Total  cost  of  crop 

Total  cost  an  acre 

Drilled  or  not  drilled 

Rust 

Smut  .. 


Quality  of  grain , 

!  Grain  . . 
Fodder 

i  Grain..... 

(  Fodder.... 
If  cotton,  pounds  an  acre. 

Stand  of  crop 

Height  of  crop 


Yield  an  acre 


EXERCISE  32 

AN  INVENTORY 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  make  an  inventory  of  property 
on  the  home  farm. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Let  each  student  make  a  list  of  the  real  and 
personal  property,  with  values,  owned  by  his 
parents.  Use  the  following  as  a  model: 

INVENTORY  OF  MAPLE  GROVE  FARM,  JANUARY  I,  IOO7 

Assets 

300  acres  land,  with  buildings $6,000 

5  head  of  horses 750 

12   COWS 360 

15  steers 450 

20  sheep 50 

25  hogs 150 

Poultry  50 

Farm  machinery 600 

Oats,  200  bushels 80 

Wheat,  300  bushels 240 

Corn,  500  bushels 250 

Cotton,  10  bales , 500 

Corn  stover 175 

Household   furniture 275 

Hay,  25  tons 120 

$10,050 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  49 

LiabiKtu* 

Mortgage  on  farm $1,500 

Personal   accounts 250 

Outstanding  notes 350 

$2,100 

Net  capital $7,95o 

2.  Have   students   make   another   inventory   one 
year  hence  for  comparison. 


EXERCISE  33 

MEANS  OF  STUDYING  ROOT  GROWTH 
TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:    To  learn  a  method  by  which  we  may  study  the 
growth  of  roots. 

Material  needed:  Nail  keg  or  barrel,  gravel,  seeds, 
knife,  box  with  glass  side. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  In  an  ordinary  nail  keg  bore  four  or  five  holes 
in  the  bottom  to  provide  good  drainage.     Next  put 
in  a  3-inch  layer  of  gravel  and  sink  the  keg  almost 
to  the  top  in  the  ground.     Fill  with  rich  soil  mixed 
with  sand.     Plant  seeds  and  leave  for  five  or  six 
weeks  under  field  conditions.     Remove  the  barrel, 
tear  away  the  staves  and  wash  all  the  soil  from  the 
roots.      Observe    how    the    roots     are     distributed 
through  the  soil.    Separate  all  the  roots,  both  large 
and  small,  and  find  the  total  length  of  the  roots. 

2.  Construct  a  box  with  one  side  of  glass ;  fill  with 
sand  and  plant  seeds  down  by  the  side  of  the  glass. 
Keep  the  glass  covered  so  as  to  have  darkness,  and 
keep  the  sand  moist.     Examine  the  growth  of  the 
roots  daily. 

3.  Plant  seeds  at  various  depths  and  notice  their 
behavior. 


EXERCISE  34 

FORMS   OF   ROOTS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  different  forms  of  roots. 
Material  needcd^Paper  and  pencil. 


FIG.  7  FIG.  9 

TAP  ROOT  OF     FIG.  8 — FIBROUS  ROOT  OF  RASPBERRY     FLESHY  ROOT  OF 
ALFALFA  PARSNIP 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


FIG.    IO — AIR  ROOTS  OF   POISON   IVY 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  53 


FIG.  II— BRACE  ROOTS  OF  CORN 


54  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  You  will  observe  by  the  cuts  in  this  exercise 
that  plants  have  various  kinds  of  roots.    Study  these 
forms  carefully  and  see  if  you  can  think  of  any  ad- 
vantages in  each  particular  kind. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  plants  and  group  them  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  according  to  their  form  of  root  system  : 


Tap  Roots 

Fibrous  Roots 

Brace  Roots 

Air  Roots 

Fleshy  Roots 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Do  air  roots  take  in  plant  food? 

2.  What  difference  do  you  notice  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  roots  of  trees  which  have  long  been  ex- 
posed to  the  air  by  the  soil  having  been  washed 
away  ? 

3.  Why  do  some  plants  send  their  roots  deep  into 
the  soil  while  others  keep  them  near  the  surface? 

4.  Does  the  amount  of  plant  food  or  moisture  af- 
fect the  depth  to  which  plants  send  their  roots  in  the 
soil? 


EXERCISE  35 

DIRECTION  OF  GROWTH  OF  ROOTS 
TIME:  WHEN  WEATHER  is  WARM 

Object:  To  learn  the  direction  of  root  growth  and  the 
things  which  influence  this  direction. 

Material  needed:  Peas,  soil,  tumbler,  small  dish,  three 
clothes-pins,  mercury,  ivooden  box  ( 12  x  10  x  3  inches), 
wire  netting,  sawdust,  blotting  paper. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Place  some  peas  which  have  germinated  upon 
moist  soil  with  the  radicles  (roots)  pointing  in  differ- 
ent directions.  Cover  with  a  glass  to  prevent  evap- 


FIG.    12 — SPROUTING    BEANS 


oration  and  watch  closely.  Do  the  root-tips  point 
downward?  Do  you  think  the  tips  of  the  roots  drop 
downward  by  their  own  weight? 


56  RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

2.  Fasten  three  clothes-pins  to  the  side  of  a  small 
dish,  and  pour  into  it  some  mercury.     To  each  of 
the  clothes-pins  pin  germinating  peas  and  allow  the 
tips  of  the  roots  to  rest  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury. 
Pour  on  enough  water  partly  to  submerge  the  seeds. 
What  direction  do  the  tips  of  the  roots  take?     Do 
they  bend  by  their  own  weight? 

3.  Does  light,  moisture,  air,  warmth,  or  food  in- 
fluence the  direction  of  growth?     Let  us  carry  the 
experiment    further.      In    a    small    box,    not    over 
3  inches  deep,  having  a  bottom  of  wire  netting  and 
filled  with  damp  sawdust  to  one  half  its  depth,  place 
some  seeds  which  have  just  started  to  germinate 
and  fill  the  box  with  sawdust  of  equal  moisture  with 
that  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.    Now  cover  with  blot- 
ting paper  or  cloth  and  keep  moist.     Hang  up  the 
box  so  the  bottom  can  be  observed. 

You  will  observe:  (i)  that  air,  light,  and  warmth, 
come  mostly  from  below;  (2)  moisture  is  about 
equally  abundant  above  and  below;  (3)  and  the 
same  amount  of  sawdust  is  above  and  under  the 
seed. 

Now,  why  does  the  root  grow  downward? 


EXERCISE  36 

ARTIFICIAL  ROOT-HAIR 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  represent  by  artificial  means  the  manner 
in  which  root-hairs  take  in  plant  food. 

Material  needed:  Egg,  vinegar,  glass  tube,  sugar,  tum- 
bler, thread. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Break  a  small  hole  in  one  end  of  an  egg  and 
pour  out  the  contents  ;  soak  the  shell  in  weak  acid  or 
vinegar  until  the  shell  is  dissolved.     Insert  a  small 
glass  tube  into  the  membrane  and  tie' firmly. 

2.  Now  pour  into  the  tube  a  thick  sirup,  made  of 
sugar  and  water,  until  it  rises  a  short  distance  above 
the  membrane.    Mark  the  height  to  which  the  sirup 
stands  and  submerge  the  membrane  in  a  tumbler 
of  water.    What  happens  to  the  liquid  in  the  tube? 

3.  Make  a  stronger  sirup  and  submerge  the  mem- 
brane in  it  and  note  what  happens  to  the  fluid  in  the 
tube. 

Facts. — Root-hairs  act  in  the  same  way  as  the 
membrane.  This  passage  of  water  into  the  root- 
hairs  or  through  the  membrane  is  called  osmosis. 
Strong  solutions  of  salts  as  found  in  salt  marshes, 
alkali  soils,  and  peat  bogs  interfere  with  the  absorp- 
tion of  moisture  by  the  root-hairs,  and  in  some  cases 
the  water  is  even  taken  from  the  roots. 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


FIG.    13 

DIAGRAM  OF  CORN    STALK,   SHOWING  LOSS  OF 
MOISTURE  THROUGH   LEAVES 


EXERCISE  37 

TRANSPIRATION  OF  WATER  BY  PLANTS 
TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  TASSELING 

Object:    To  learn  that  plants  absorb  water  and  plant 
food  through  the  stem,  and  lose  water  through  the  leaves. 

Material  needed:   Three  wide-mouthed   bottles,   corn 
plants,  red  ink,  white  flowers. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Fill  two  wide-mouthed  bottles  with  water  and 
put  two  freshly  cut  corn  plants  of  equal  size  in  them. 
With  a  sharp  knife  or  pair  of  scissors  cut  off  one 
half  of  the  leaves  of  one  stalk ;  set  aside  and  note 
the  difference  in  the  loss  of  water  from  the  two 
bottles. 

2.  Prepare  a  third  bottle  in  the  same  way,  but 
have  the  water  colored  with  red  ink.     What  hap- 
pens to  the  stalk?    Try  white  flowers  also  and  note 
what  occurs. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Do  plants  absorb  moisture  through  the  leaves? 

2.  Carry  out  an   experiment  which  will  demon- 
strate the  answer  to  the  first  question. 

3.  Do  plants  use  food  in  a  solid  state? 

4.  Why  does  the  amount  of  water  in  streams  and 
in  wells  sometimes  increase  in  the  fall,  even  when 
there  has  not  been  rain? 

5.  Do  you  know  of  any  means  by  which  plants 
reduce  transpiration? 


EXERCISE  38 

SUNLIGHT  AND  LEAVES 
TIME:  WHEN  LEAVES  ARE  GREEN 

Object:     To   determine  the   effect  of  sunlight  on  the 
green  coloring  matter  of  plants. 

Material  needed:  Board,  cork,  pins,  plant  in  pot. 

DIRECTIONS 

Place  a  board  on  the  green  grass  and  let  it  re- 
main for  ten  days,  then  notice  if  a  change  has  taken 


FIG.    14 — EFFECT   OF   LIGHT   ON    GREEN    LEAF 

place.  How  do  you  account  for  this  change?  Ex- 
amine the  same  spot  again  in  a  few  days,  the  board 
having  been  left  off.  What  do  you  notice  at  this 
time? 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  6l 

Fasten  two  thin,  flat  pieces  of  cork  to  a  leaf,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  14,  and  examine  after  a  few  days. 
How  do  you  account  for  what  you  see  then? 

Try  the  same  experiment  by  pinning  the  cork  to 
a  leaf  of  a  pot  plant;  keep  the  plant  in  the  dark. 
Do  you  get  the  same  result  in  this  case?  The  green 
color  of  leaves  is  due  to  chlorophyll. 

Facts  about  Chlorophyll. — Chlorophyll  is  made  up 
of  tiny  green  grains  whose  work  is  to  manufacture 
starch.  These  green  grains  can  perform  their  work 
only  while  the  sun  is  shining.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  potato  shoots  grown  in  a  dark  cellar  are  always 
white.  Chlorophyll,  in  the  presence  of  sunlight,  acts 
upon  the  absorbed  carbon  dioxide,  thus  producing 
a  chemical  change ;  the  carbon  dioxide  is  broken  up, 
the  carbon  is  united  with  water,  forming  starch, 
while  the  oxygen  in  the  carbon  dioxide  is  given  back 
to  the  air. 


EXERCISE  39 

DECOMPOSITION   OF   CARBON   DIOXIDE   BY 
LEAVES 


TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:  To  determine  whether  leaves  decompose  car- 
bon dioxide. 

Material  needed:  Cork,  candle,  shallow  vessel,  fruit- 
jars. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fasten  a  lighted  candle  to  a  flat  piece  of  cork  so 
it  will  float;  set  it  in  a  shallow  vessel  of  water  and 
invert  a  fruit-jar  over  it.  If  after  a  while  the  candle 
goes  out,  it  indicates  that  some  of  the  oxygen  in  the 
air  above  the  water  has  been  converted  into  water 
and  carbon  dioxide. 


FIG.   15 — EXPERIMENT  WITH  OXYGEN  AND  CARBON  DIOXIDE  IN 
THE  AIR 


RURAL  SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  63 

Withdraw  the  candle  and  cork  by  means  of  a 
string-  which  must  be  attached  to  the  cork  before  the 
jar  is  inverted  over  it.  Make  a  hole  through  an- 
other piece  of  cork  and  slip  the  stalk  of  a  green  leaf 
through  it.  Lift  the  bottom  of  the  inverted  jar 
nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and  introduce 
the  leaf  under  the  jar,  using  care  so  as  not  to  admit 
any  air.  Remove  the  vessel  containing  the  jar  and 
water  to  a  place  in  the  sunshine.  Leave  in  the  sun 
for  two  days,  and  remove  the  leaf.  Carefully  lift 
the  jar  slightly  above  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
introduce  the  lighted  candle  as  before.  If  the  can- 
dle does  not  immediately  go  out,  it  is  a  proof  that 
some  of  the  carbon  dioxide  has  been  decomposed, 
thus  liberating  some  of  the  oxygen  which  supports 
combustion. 


EXERCISE  40 

ANNUAL  RINGS  OF  TREES 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  formation  of  rings  in  trees. 
Material  needed:  Knife,  piece  of  tin,  wax. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Examine   the   end  of  a   log  which   has   been 
smoothly  cut  in  two.     Count  from  the  center  out- 
ward in  three  directions.     Do  you  find  the  same 
number  of  rings  in  each  count?    Can  you  trace  each 
ring  all  the  way  around  the  log?    Find  a  knot  on  a 
small  log  or  a  large  limb ;  saw  the  log  in  two  at  the 
knot.    Can  you  trace  the  rings  all  the  way  around? 
Where  does  the  knot  originate?     Are  knots  ever 
beneficial  in  lumber?     Suppose  the  growth  of  trees 
is  almost  checked  by  a  drouth  during  the  summer 
and  later  the  coming  of  rains  causes  them  to  begin 
growth  again,  would  there  be  two  rings  formed  that 
season?    What  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  rings 
if  the  leaves  are  destroyed  by  insects  and  new  leaves 
are  put  forth  during  the  summer?    Can  we  always 
tell  the  age  of  trees  by  the  annual  rings? 

2.  Select   a    stem    I    inch    in    diameter    and    cut 
through  the  bark  three  quarters  the  way  around  ;  pull 
each  end  of  the  severed  bark  from  the  wood  for  the 
distance  of  I  inch.    Carefully  lift  the  unsevered  bark 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


from  the  wood  and  under  it  place  a  thin  piece  of 
tin,  2  inches  wide,  and  long  enough  to  reach  com- 
pletely around  the 
stem.  When  the  tin  is 
in  place,  put  the  bark 
down  over  it,  tie  firmly 
and  cover  with  grafting 
wax  so  as  to  exclude 
the  air.  After  40  days 
the  twine  may  be  re- 
moved. In  December 
cut  away  the  bark  cov- 
ering the  tin.  Do  you 
find  any  wood  between 
the  tin  and  the  bark? 
3.  Make  a  list  of  plants  which  form  annual  rings. 
Is  there  any  relation  between  those  plants  form- 
ing annual  rings  and  either  class  of  plants  in  Exer- 
cise 19? 


FIG.  i 6 

CROSS-SECTION   OF    HARDWOOD   LOG 


EXERCISE  41 

GROWTH  OF  STEMS 
TIME:  LATE  IN  THE  SPRING 

Object:    To  learn  the  manner  in  which  stems  grow. 

Material  needed:  Apple  branch,  pots  for  growing  twin- 
ing plants. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Take  from  an  apple  tree  a  limb  having  several 
branches,  and  find  the  rings  which  show  the  annual 
growths.  These  rings  are  clusters  of  bud  scale 
scars  formed  by  the  terminal  bud.  What  is  the 
object  of  the  terminal  bud?  Suppose  you  plant 
a  tree  having  its  fork  3  feet  from  the  ground, 
how  high  will  the  fork  be  in  10  years?  Which 
way  do  stems  grow — by  a  stretching  process 
or  by  the  addition  of  material  at  the  end? 

2.  Make  a  study  of  twining  stems  and  ob- 
serve that  some  turn  clockwise,  while  others 
turn  counter-clockwise.  Grow  a  number  of 
twining  plants  in  pots ;  use  sticks  for  support. 
Turn  one  pot  over  on  its  side  so  the  plant  will 
be  in  a  horizontal  position.  Does  this  affect 
the  twining?  Use  supports  of  different  sizes 
and  note  the  effect.  Place  a  glass  rod  in  one 
pot  for  a  support,  and  observe  whether  a  plant 
FIG  i7can  twine  as  well  on  a  smooth  support  as  on 
BUDS  a  rough  one.  Place  one  plant  in  the  dark  and 


OF 
PEACH 


observe  whether  light  affects  the  twining. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  67 

3.  Make  a  drawing  of  an  oak  which  you  have  seen 
growing  in  a  forest ;  the  same  of  one  which  has  been 
growing  in  an-  open  field  for  a  long  time.  If  you  note 
a  difference  in  form,  how  do  you  account  for  it?  Is 
there  such  a  thing  as  natural  pruning?  Would  you 
top  a  timber  tree? 


FIG.   l8 — TWINING  STEMS  :  MORNING-GLORY    (LEFT)  J   HOP    (RIGHT) 


68  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

4.  Select  a  young  brier  shoot  or  some  rapidly 
growing  plant;  make  a  mark  a  few  inches  from 
the  tip  early  in  the  morning,  measure  late  in  the 
afternoon,  and  note  the  growth  during  the  day ; 
find  the  growth  during  the  night.  Is  the  growth 
more  rapid  during  the  daytime  or  the  night? 


EXERCISE  42 

FORMS  OF  TREES 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  two  forms  of  trees. 
Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Study  the  forms  of  trees  in  Fig.  19.  Trees 
whose  main  stems  are  carried  on  in  a  direct  line 
through  their  whole  growth  are  called  excurrent. 
This  form  is  due  to  the  development  year  after  year 


FIG.  ip — FORMS  OF  TREES.    DIAGRAM  OF  SPRUCE  (EXCURRENT)  AT 
LEFT;  ANP  PEACH  (DELIQUESCENT)  AT  RIGHT 


7O  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

of  a  terminal  bud.  The  main  shaft  is  never  con- 
founded with  the  branches  which  proceed  from  it. 
Pines  and  firs  are  good  examples  of  this  form. 

Those  trees  in  which  the  terminal  bud  fails  to 
take  the  lead  regularly  and  whose  trunks  are  lost 
in  their  branches  are  called  deliquescent.  The 
American  elm  is  a  good  example  of  this  type. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  each  type  of  trees. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  type  is  cut  for  lumber? 

2.  To  which  form  do  most  of  our  fruit  trees  be- 
long? 

3.  Which  type  is  best  for  shade  trees? 


EXERCISE  43 

PARTS  OF  A  FLOWER 
TIME:  WHEN  FLOWERS  CAN  BE  OBTAINED 

Object:    To  learn  all  the  parts  of  a  flower. 
Material  needed:  Flowers. 

DIRECTIONS 

Take  for  study  a  plum,  peach,  or  apple  blossom. 
Remove  the  calyx  or  whorl  of  green  leaves  at  the 
base  of  the  flower.  How  many  of  these  leaves  did 
you  remove?  Each  of  these  leaves  is  called  a  sepal. 


FIG.   20 — CROSS-SECTION   OF   CHERRY   FLOWER:    0,   SEPAL J   &, 

STAMEN;  c,  PISTIL 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


There  is  a  whorl  of  colored  leaves  just  above  the 
calyx;  call  this  the  corolla,  and  each  separate  leaf 
a  petal. 

Look  just  inside  the  petals  for  a  number  of 
thread-like  parts  with  a  knob  at  the  top;  these  are 
the  stamens.  Now  ex- 
amine one  stamen 
closely  (Fig.  21).  The 
knob  at  the  end  is  the 
anther,  which  bears  the 
pollen.  Open  one  of  the 
anthers  and  observe 
the  small  yellow  grains 
of  pollen.  The  stalk  of 
the  stamen  is  the  fila- 
ment. 

In  the  center  of  the 
flower  is  a  stalk  with  an 

enlarged  base.  This  is  FIG.  21 — TYPICAL  STAMENS  : 
the  pistil.  Let  us  study  a,  ANTHER;  b,  SHOWING  MODE 
the  pistil  separately  OF  ATTACHMENT  ;  c,  FILAMENT 
(Fig.  22).  You  will  observe  it  is  made  up  of 
three  parts :  the  enlargement  at  the  top  is  the  stigma, 
which  receives  the  pollen  from  the  anthers ;  the 
middle  portion  is  the  style ;  and  the  base  is  the  ovary. 

Study  a  number  of  flowers  of  different  kinds  with 
reference  to  the  number  of  parts  they  contain,  and 
tabulate  your  results  as  follows : 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


73 


Name  of  Flower 

No.  Sepals 

No.  Petals 

No.  Stamens 

No.  Pistils 

FIG.     22 — VARIOUS     FORMS     OF     PISTILS:     d,     CHERRY;      b,      WILD 

GERANIUM;  c,  ST.  JOHN'S-WORT  (COMPOUND  PISTIL); 
d,  ST.  JOHN'S-WORT 


EXERCISE  44 

USES  OF  THE   PARTS  OF  A  FLOWER 
TIME:  WHEN  FLOWERS  ARE  BLOOMING 

Object:    To  learn  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  a  flower. 
M'dterial  needed:,  Flowers  in  yard  or  field. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  To  find  the  use  of  the  calyx:  For  this  experi- 
ment select  large  flowers,  such  as  poppy,  rose,  etc. 
Begin  when  the  buds  are   small  and  remove  the 
calyx,  taking  care  not  to  injure  other  parts  of  the 
flower.     Treat  about  half  a  dozen  buds  and  label 
them.     Label  some  untreated  buds  to  serve  as  a 
control. 

How  do  the   treated   flowers   develop? 
•  Since  the  calyx  is  green,  does  it  perform  the  func- 
tion of  a  true  leaf? 

2.  To  find  the  use  of  the  corolla:  Cut  away  the 
corollas  of  flowers  frequented  by  insects,  and  observe 
whether  the  insects  cease  their  visits.     Notice  that 
small  flowers  are  usually  grouped  in  clusters ;  does 
this   help   to   attract  insects?     Find   some   flowers 
with  bright,  showy  colors,  and  watch  for  visits  by 
insects.     Are  they  frequent? 

3.  To    find    the    use    of    stamens    and    pistils: 
Stamens  of  the  corn  plant  are  borne  on  the  tassels, 
and  the  pistils  are  the  silks.    Find  an  isolated  stalk 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  75 

somewhere  and  remove  the  tassel  just  as  it  appears ; 
examine  when  the  silk  is  dead.  Are  there  any 
kernels?  Suppose  you  find  a  few  scattered  kernels 
on  the  cob,  what  does  this  prove?  Tie  a  paper  bag 
over  an  ear  before  the  silk  appears,  so  as  to  exclude 
all  pollen,  and  examine  later.  What  effects  do  you 
notice  on  the  silks  and  the  kernels? 


EXERCISE  45 

FURTHER    STUDY    OF    FLOWERS    IN    THEIR 
RELATION  TO   INSECTS 

TIME:  WHEN  FLOWERS  ARE  BLOOMING 

Object:    To  discover  the  part  insects  play  in  plant  life. 

Material  needed:  Flowers  in  the  field. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Study  the  flower  of  the  wheat  plant.     Has  it 
the  same  kinds  of  parts  as  other  flowers?  Are  these 
flowers  visited  by  insects?     Who  can  find  just  the 
hour  in  which  the  wheat  flower  opens? 

2.  Describe  the  flowers  of  pines,  oaks,  and  net- 
tles.   Why  do  they  produce  an  abundance  of  pollen? 
Does  corn  produce  more  or  less  pollen  relatively 
than  wheat,  and  why? 

3.  Are  the  flowers  of  grape  and  Virginia  creeper 
visited  by  insects?     Are  the  flowers  conspicuous? 
Do  they  have  an  attractive  odor?    Draw  some  con- 
clusions from  these  observations. 

4.  Collect  several  kinds  of  flowers  and  endeavor 
to  find  the  nectar,  or  honey.     In  what  part  of  the 
flower  do  you  find  the  nectar?    Do  all  flowers  have 
nectar?    Does  the  nectar  benefit  the  flower? 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  77 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  flowers  blooming  late  in  the  fall 
usually  dull  in  color? 

2.  Why  does  the  honey-bee  visit  white  clover,  and 
the  bumble  bee  red  clover? 

3.  Would  it  be  well  to  use  the  first  cutting  of 
clover  for  seed? 


EXERCISE  46 


TIME:  WHEN  STRAWBERRIES  ARE  IN  BLOOM 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  distinguish  between  perfect 
and  imperfect  blossoms,  and  what  variety  will  produce 
fruit  without  the  aid  of  another  variety. 

Material  needed:  Strawberry  blossoms,  seed  catalogue. 

DIRECTIONS 

Collect  some  strawberry  blossoms  for  study.'  Try 
to  find  both  perfect  and  imperfect  flowers.  The  per- 
fect flowers  bear  both  pistils  and  stamens ;  the  pis- 
tils are  grouped  in  the  center  of  the  flower,  while 
the  stamens  are  located  around  these  at  the  base 
of  the  petals.  The  pistils  are  pointed,  but  the 
stamens  have  a  knob  on  top.  The  imperfect  flowers 
bear  pistils  only,  and  cannot  produce  fruit  unless 
they  are  planted  near  a  variety  which  has  perfect 
flowers. 

It  would  be  safe  to  set  out  a  variety  bearing  im- 
perfect flowers,  provided  you  set  the  third  or  fourth 
row  each  time  with  some  variety  bearing  perfect 
flowers. 

Suppose  you  wish  to  know  what  varieties  are 
perfect  or  imperfect,  when  getting  ready  to  order 
plants.  Look  in  the  catalogue  where  the  varieties 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


79 


are  described,  and  you  will  see  the  letters  "P"  and 
"S."  "P"  means  the  variety  has  imperfect  flowers; 


a 


FIG.  23 — STRAWBERRY   BLOSSOMS:  0,   PERFECT  OR  STAMINATEJ 
b,    IMPF.RFECT    OR    PISTILLATE 

pistils  but  no  stamens.     "S"  means  staminate ;  the 
variety  bears  perfect  flowers. 


EXERCISE  47 

ROSE  CUTTINGS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM,  JUST  BEFORE  FROST 

Object:    To  learn  how  to  make  rose  cuttings,  and  have 
rose  bushes  for  the  home  or  school  grounds. 

Material  needed:  Knife,  rose  cuttings,  spade,  window 
Pane. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Take  a  number  of  cuttings  from  rose  bushes, 
using  stems  of  one  year's  growth.  Cut  the  stems 
into  pieces  of  about  6  inches  long,  and  remove  at 
least  half  the  leaves  on  each  cutting.  Make  a  slant- 
ing cut,  Y*  mcn  l°ng>  at  the 
base  of  each,  so  there  will  be 
more  surface  for  the  roots  to 
form. 

2.  The  size  of  the  excava- 
tion for  these  cuttings  will 
depend  upon  the  number  to 
be  started,  and  the  size  of 
the  glass  with  which  it  must 
be  covered.  Suppose  the 
glass  is  12x16  inches,  then 
dig  the  hole  just  large 
enough  to  be  barely  covered 
by  the  glass.  Let  the  hole 
be  18  inches  deep.  Put  into 

ROSE  CUTTING  TAKING  ROOT  the     h°le    a    Ia7er    °f    Soil>    6 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  8l 

inches  deep;  over  this  put  a  layer  of  5  inches  of 
sand. 

3.  Set  the  cutting*  3  inches  deep  in  the  sand,  and 
press  the  sand  firmly  about  them.    Put  the  glass  in 
place,  press  down  firmly  and  cover  the  edges  of  the 
glass  with  soil   so  as  to  exclude   the   air.     Make 
a  small  trench  around  it  to  turn  the  water  away. 

4.  Why  do  florists  keep  bulbs,  after  potting  them, 
the  cuttings  and  pot  them,  or  set  them  in  the  soil. 


EXERCISE  48 

LIGHT  AND  GERMINATION 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  determine  whether  light  affects  germination. 

Material  needed:  Germination  boxes  or  plates  of  sand, 
corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Take  two  germination  boxes,  two  flower  pots, 
or  two  plates  of  sand.    In  each  plant  100  kernels  of 
corn  ;  place  tips  downward. 

2.  Place  one  box  in  the  dark ;  one  in  the  light. 
Let  the  temperature  be  as  nearly  alike  as  possible. 
Examine  daily  and  record  your  results  as  follows: 


a* 

a* 

. 

N 

b 

afr 

a^ 

SQ 

3Q 

SQ 

3Q 

3Q 

3Q 

3Q 

S* 

ft 

>•£ 

o  - 
fct 

»l 

^t 

^1 

In  light  

In  dark     .    .    . 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Does  light  affect  germination? 

2.  Name  all  the  conditions  for  germination. 

3.  We  have  dormant  buds.     Are  there  dormant 
seeds? 

4.  Why  do  florists  keep  bulbs,  after  potting  them, 
in  the  dark  for  several  weeks  before  bringing  them 
into  the  light? 


EXERCISE  49 

DIFFERENT    TYPES     OF     SOILS     AFFECT 
GERMINATION 

TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:  To  determine  the  effect  of  soils  upon  germina- 
tion, and  to  observe  the  effect  of  working  soils  when  too 
wet. 

Material  needed:  Three  plates,  clay  soil,  humus,  sand, 
seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Fill  a  plate  with  some  clay  soil ;  apply  water, 
and  puddle.     Attempt  to  do  this  witji  a  plate  con- 
taining humus  and  another  containing  sand.    What 
differences  do  you  see? 

2.  Plant  the  same  number  of  seeds  in  each  plate 
and  notice  the  results. 

3.  Add  sand  to  the  clay  and  attempt  to  puddle; 
plant  seeds  and  note  the  results.     These  experi- 
ments illustrate  why  soils  should  ndt  be  worked 
when  too  wet. 


EXERCISE  50 

AGE  AFFECTS  GERMINATION 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  determine  whether  old  seed  should  be 
planted. 

Material  needed:  Germination  boxes,  old  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let  the  pupils  bring  some  very  old  seeds  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  from  their  homes.  Make  germination 
tests  and  compare  with  a  germination  test  of  new 
seed.  Study  table  given  below: 

NUMBER  OF  YEARS  THAT  SEEDS  RETAIN  THEIR  POWER  TO 
GERMINATE 


i  Year 

a  Years 

3  Years 

4  Years 

5  Years 

6  Years 

10  Years 

Chervil 
Sea  Kale 

Soy  Bean 
Hop 
Corn 
Onion 

Leek 
Parsley 
Pea 
Rhubarb 
Strawberry 

Carrot 
Lentils 
Mustard 
Tomato 

Muskmelon 
Kale 
Asparagus 
Cabbage 
Lettuce 
Turnip 
Spinach 

Bean 
Eggplant 
Watermelon 
Pumpkin 
Squash 

Cucumber 
Wheat 
Oats 
Flax 
Buckwheat 
Barley 

EXERCISE  51 

GERMINATION   TEST  OF  SEEDS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  find  the  percentage  of  germination  of  vari- 
ous seeds,  and  make  a  comparison  with  the  germination 
"standards."  * 

Material  needed:  Germination  boxes,  variety  of  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Make  a  germination  test  of  different  seeds,  and 
place  the  percentage  of  germination  in  the  blank 
column  in  the  table  below,  so  that  a  comparison  can 
be  made  with  the  standards,  which  are  also  given 
in  the  same  table. 

2.  For  small  seeds  take  sample  with  spoon  here 
and  there   through  the  mass  and  mix  thoroughly. 
In  testing  large  seeds,  use  100;  small  seeds,  200  to 
300. 

3.  Allow  from  10  to  20  days  for  the  germination 
of  grass  seed ;  and  from  2  to  7  for  cereals,  clovers, 
peas,  and  vetches.     The  best  temperature  is  from 
65°  to  75°. 

GERMINATION  TABLE 


Name  of  Seeds 

Standard 

*Germ. 

Name  of  Seed 

Standard 

%  Germ. 

Oats    

Corn  

Peas     

08 

Ba 

Orchard  grass  

So 

95 

•i 

88 

Millet  

85 

Wheat  

95 

86  RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

Allowing  for  seed  that  will  not  germinate,  how 
much  to  the  acre  of  the  tested  seed  should  be  used? 
Let  the  instructor  give  the  usual  rate  of  seeding  an 
acre  of  the  various  seeds. 


EXERCISE  52 

DEPTH  AFFECTS  GERMINATION 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  show  the  effect  of  depth  of  planting  upon 
germination    and  stand  of  crop. 

Material  needed:  Box  and  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Fill  a  box  8  inches  deep,  and  12  or  more  inches 
square,  with  good  soil.    Mark  off  rows  in  which  to 
plant  the  seed.     In  the  first  row  plant  12  seeds,  I 
inch  deep;  in  the  second  row,   12  seeds,  2  inches 
deep ;  in  the  third  row,  12  seeds,  4  inches  deep ;  in 
the  fourth  row,  12  seeds,  6  inches  deep. 

2.  Use  large,  medium,  and  small  seeds  and  keep 
results  in  table  below. 


•o« 

a*" 

o.* 

A,* 

aX 

a>> 

ftx 

a^ 

a« 

Kind  of  Seeds 

Ji'S 

fcl 

4.* 

^2 

d° 

J2 

6  j. 

dj. 

i2 

^ 

Q0, 

*  •* 

* 

s 

«;- 

3 

31 

15  2 

- 

Wheat  

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  depth  of  planting  affect  germination? 

2.  Is  there   any   relation   between   the   depth   of 
planting  and  the  size  of  seeds? 

3.  Can  the  fanner  always  regulate  the  depth  of 
planting? 

4.  How   deep   should   corn   be   planted?     Name 
some  conditions  which  might  cause  us  to  vary  the 
depth  of  planting. 


EXERCISE  53 

CARBON  DIOXIDE  FORMED  BY  GERMINATING 
SEEDS 

TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  determine  whether  the  germinating  seeds 
give  back  anything  into  the  atmosphere. 

Material  needed:  Glass  jar,  corn,  lime  water,  two  tum- 
blers, glass  tube. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill  a  fruit  jar  one-third  full  of  sprouting  corn  and 
place  in  it  a  small  glass  filled  with  lime  water.  Place 
another  glass  of  lime  water  in  a  second  jar  and  set 
beside  the  first.  Cover  both  jars  tightly.  Leave 
for  several  hours  and  observe  the  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  the  liquid  in  the  two  glasses. 

Breathe  into  another  glass  of  fresh  lime  water  and 
note  any  change  in  its  appearance.  It  would  be 
well  to  use  a  quill  for  this  purpose. 

Lime  water  may  be  prepared  by  stirring  a  small 
amount  of  fresh  lime  in  clear  water.  Let  stand  until 
all  the  undissolved  lime  has  settled  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  then  pour  off  the  clear  liquid. 

Facts. — In  the  two  cases  above,  the  carbon  dioxide 
from  the  germinating  seed  and  from  the  lungs  unites 
with  the  calcium  in  the  water,  thus  forming  calcium 
carbonate,  which  gives  the  water  its  milky  appear- 
ance. Ordinary  limestone  is  calcium  carbonate,  and 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  89 

when  we  burn  it  in  making  4ime,  we  simply  drive 
off  the  carbon  dioxide  into  the  air.  Animals  in 
breathing  give  off  carbon  dioxide,  while  plants  take 
it  in  through  their  leaves  and  use  the  carbon  in  the 
formation  of  starch.  Carbon  dioxide  is  often  called 
carbonic  acid  gas 


EXERCISE  54 

THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  LARGE  AND  SMALL 
SEED 

TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:  To  find  whether  large  or  small  seed  should  be 
planted. 

Material  needed:  Germination  boxes,  large  and  small 
seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill  two  flower  pots  or  two  boxes  with  rich  soil. 
Plant  25  large  seeds  in  one,  and  25  small  seeds  in 
the  other.  Note  any  variation  in  the  per  cent,  of 
germination.  Examine  from  time  to  time,  and 
record  any  differences  you  may  observe.  Be  sure 
to  have  the  two  lots  under  like  conditions.  When 
watering,  always  apply  the  same  amount  of  water 
to  each  lot.  At  the  end  of  three  weeks  make  a  record 
of  the  height  of  plants,  size  of  stems,  number  of 
leaves,  etc. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Does  it  make  any  difference  in  the  health  and 
vigor  of  a  plant  whether  it  is  grown  from  a  large 
and  well  developed  seed  or  from  a  weak  and  puny 
one? 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  9! 

2.  Would  you  consider  a  farmer  wise  who  mar- 
kets all  his  best  grain  and  keeps  only  the  inferior 
for  seed? 

3.  What  would  be  the  ultimate  result  of  repeated 
plantings  made  from  the  worst  seed?    Of  repeated 
plantings  of  the  best  and  most  vigorous? 


EXERCISE  55 

THE    EFFECT    OF    FREEZING    UPON   THE    GER- 
MINATION  OF  SEEDS 

TIME:  DURING  FREEZING  WEATHER 

Object:  To  determine  whether  moist  or  dry  seeds  are 
injured  most  by  freezing. 

Material  needed:  Germination  box,  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Soak  two  dozen  seeds  in  water  for  two  hours; 
remove  from  water,  and  when  the  surface  of  the 
seeds  is  dry,  place  one  dozen  out  of  doors  for  24 
hours,  so  that  they  may  freeze.*     Keep  the  other 
dozen  indoors. 

2.  Soak  another  two  dozen  seeds  for  six  hours, 
and  treat  as  above.    Germinate  the  four  lots  of  seed 
separately  and  note  the  percentage  of  germination. 


Treatment 

Per  cent,  of  Germination 

T 

Soaked  two  hours,  exposed  

? 

Soaked  two  hours,  unexposed  

• 

Soaked  six  hours,  exposed  

,1 

Soaked  six  hours,  unexposed  

*This  experiment  could  be  performed  during  warm  weather  by  placing  seeds 
in  a  water-tight  vessel,  then  packing  chips  of  ice  around  the  vessel. 


EXERCISE  56 

FOOD  FOR  YOUNG  PLANTS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  ascertain  whether  the  germinating  seed 
acquires  new  material  from  its  surroundings  from  the 
beginning. 

Material  needed:  Germination  boxes,  seeds,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Take  about  half  a  pound  of  dry  corn,  beans  or 
peas ;  divide  into  four  lots  and  weigh  each  lot  sep- 
arately.    Arrange  the  lots   for  germination,  using 
care  to  have  them  under  the  same  conditions. 

2.  After  48  hours  remove  all  the  seeds  from  the 
first  lot;  dry,  weigh  and  compare  weight  with  the 
original  weight. 

3.  When  the  end  of  the  germ  first  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  second  lot,  remove,  dry  thoroughly 
and  weigh.    Compare  weight  with  original  weight. 

4.  Later,  as  the  seeds  sprout  in  the  third  lot,  dry, 
and  weigh  as  before. 

5.  Wait  until  the  first  leaves  appear  in  the  fourth 
lot,  dry  and  weigh. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  At  what  stage  is  the  weight  permanently  in- 
creased? 


94  RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

2.  From  what  source  does  the  plant  obtain  its  first 
food? 

3.  What  is  the  per  cent,  of  increase  in  weight  in 
each  stage? 

4.  When  does  the  plant  first  begin  to  take  food 
from  the  soil?    From  the  air? 


EXERCISE  57 

TYPES  OF  SOIL 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  the  different  types  of  soils. 
Material  needed:  Field  work. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  the  definitions  of  the  types  given  below  and 
go  into  the  fields  and  collect  small  samples  of  each 
type. 

1.  Sandy  soils  contain  large  amounts  of  sand. 

2.  Clay  soils   include  all  those   containing  large 
amounts  of  clay,  and  may  be  known  by  their  sticky 
character.    A  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  forms  loam. 

3.  Sandy  loams  contain  considerably  more  sand 
than  clay. 

4.  Clay    loams    contain    considerably    more    clay 
than  sand. 

5.  Humus  soils  contain  large  amounts  of  decaying 
organic  matter. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  type  of  soil  is  the  commonest  in  your 
locality  ? 

2.  Name  some  crops   specially  adapted  to  each 
class. 

3.  What   type    should   you   prefer   to   cultivate? 
Why? 


EXERCISE  58 

SAND,  SILT,  AND  CLAY 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  separate  the  sand,  silt,  and  clay  in  soils. 
Material  needed:  Three  fruit  jars,  clay  soil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill  a  fruit  jar  three-fourths  full  of  water  and 
place  in  the  water  about  two  tablespoonfuls  of  pul- 
verized soil.  Replace  the  cover  and  shake  vigor- 
ously for  several  minutes.  Let  stand  for  a  minute, 
and  pour  the  muddy  water  into  a  second  jar.  The 
sediment  remaining  in  the  first  jar  is  composed  al- 
most entirely  of  sand.  Examine  it  carefully.  Does 
it  look  more  like  sand  than  the  original  soil  ? 

When  the  second  jar  has  been  standing  five  min- 
utes, pour  off  the  muddy  water  again  into  a  third 
jar.  Add  more  water  to  the  sediment  in  the  second 
jar,  shake  vigorously  and  let  stand  five  minutes, 
then  pour  off  the  water  as  before.  The  sediment 
now  remaining  is  largely  silt,  whose  particles  are 
finer  than  sand. 

Let  the  water  in  the  third  jar  stand  two  hours 
or  longer,  then  pour  off  the  water.  Now  you  have 
clay  remaining.  Note  how  fine  the  particles  are. 

Facts. — It  takes  23,000  grains  of  fine  clay  or  23 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  97 

grains  of  fine  gravel  to  span  i  inch.  There  are  about 
327,000  grains  of  coarse  sand  in  a  pound  of  earth, 
and  100  times  as  many  grains  of  very  fine  sand. 
Soils  that  have  the  largest  number  of  small  soil 
grains  generally  possess  the  largest  pore  space. 


EXERCISE  59 

ACIDITY  OF  SOILS 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  show  whether  soils  are  acid,  alkaline,  or 
neutral. 

Material  needed:  Litmus  paper,  vinegar,  soil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Dip  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  in  vinegar  and 
note  the  change  of  color.    Moisten  a  piece  of  red  lit- 
mus paper  and  press  against  some  ashes  and  observe 
the  color  change.     Dip  both  red  and  blue  litmus 
paper  in  fresh  water,  and  what  is  the  result? 

Substances  that  turn  blue  litmus  paper  red  are 
acid. 

Substances  that  turn  red  litmus  paper  blue  are 
alkaline. 

Substances  that  do  not  change  the  color  of  either 
are  neutral. 

2.  Moisten  some  ordinary  soil  and  test  with  litmus 
paper.    If  the  color  does  not  change,  it  is  neutral. 

Facts. — Soils  should  be  neutral  or  slightly  alka- 
line. Turning  under  large  crops  of  green  material 
has  a  tendency  to  make  soils  acid.  Acid  soils  may  be 
neutralized  by  the  application  of  lime. 


EXERCISE  60 

EFFECT   OF   ROLLING   AND    EXCESSIVE   EVAP- 
ORATION ON  SOIL  TEMPERATURE 

TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:     To  determine  the  effect  of  rolling  and  rapid 
evaporation  on  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

Material  needed:  Bucket,  roller,  thermometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  For  this  exercise  select  three  small  plots  in  a 
cultivated  field,  free  from  vegetation.     Leave  the 
first  plot  untreated ;  apply  water  to  the  second  until 
it  is  thoroughly  saturated ;  roll  the  third  plot. 

2.  Record  the  temperature  for  four  days  and  tab- 
ulate the  data  as  in  Exercise  61. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  of  the  three  plots  has  the  highest  tem- 
perature for  the  different  depths? 

2.  Did  rolling  affect  the  temperature  of  the  soil? 

3.  Does  rolling  in  any  way  affect  the  evaporation 
from  the  rolled  surface? 

4.  How  many  farmers  in  your  community  use  a 
roller?    For  what  purpose  do  they  use  it? 


EXERCISE  61 


CULTIVATION    AFFECTS    THE     TEMPERATURE 
OF  THE  SOIL 


TIME:  APRIL  OR  MAY 

Object:  To  show  that  deep  cultivation,  under  most  con- 
ditions, renders  the  soil  cooler,  and  shallow  cultivation 
warmer,  than  the  uncultivated  soil. 

Material  needed:  Thermometer,  hoe  or  rake. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Prepare  three  adjoining  plots  of  ground;  leave 
the   first   uncultivated ;   cultivate   the   second   to   a 
depth  of  il/2  inches,  and  the  third  to  a  depth  of  4 
inches. 

2.  Take  the  temperature  of  each  plot  il/2,  3,  and  6 
inches  below  the  surface  ;  take  air  temperature  at  the 
same  time ;  repeat  the  readings  for  three  days  and 
tabulate  the  data  as  follows : 


*O 

Plot  No.  i 

Plot  No.  2 

Plot  No.  3 

3 

a-r 

A 

X 

E< 

V 

1.5  in. 

3in. 

6  in. 

1.5  >"• 

3  >n. 

6  in. 

1.5  in. 

3  in. 

6  in. 

EXERCISE  62 

INFLUENCE  OF  COLOR  ON  SOIL  TEMPERATURE 
TIME:  APRIL  OR  MAY 

Object:  To  learn  whether  the  color  of  soils  affects  soil 
temperature. 

Material  needed:  Hoe,  soot  or  powdered  charcoal,  lime, 
thermometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  three  cultivated  plots,  free  from  vegetation ; 
leave  the  first  untreated ;  apply  soot,  charcoal,  or 
some  black  material  to  the  second  until  the  surface 
is  thoroughly  blackened ;  cover  the  third  plot  with 
a  dressing  of  lime.  The  plots  need  not  be  over 
3  or  4  feet  square.  Take  hourly  readings  for  10 
hours,  both  on  a  clear  and  on  a  cloudy  day,  and  tab- 
ulate the  data  as  in  Exercise  61. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  the  plots  vary  in  temperature  on  a 
clear  day?    On  a  cloudy  day? 

2.  To  what  is  the  color  of  the  soils  due? 

3.  Will  organic  matter  in  the  soil  affect  its  tem- 
perature? 


EXERCISE  63 

KINDS  OF  MOISTURE  IN  THE  SOIL 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  the  three  kinds  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 
Material  needed:  Flower  pot,  soil,  pan,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Nearly  fill  a  flower  pot  with  soil  and  apply 
water  slowly  until  it  trickles  through  the  pot.     Set 
the  pot  in  a  pan  so  as  to  catch  the  water  that  passes 
through  it. 

This  water  passes  through  by  the  force  of  gravity 
and  is  called  gravitational  or  free  water. 

2.  When  the  water  ceases  to  drip  from  the  pot, 
transfer  the  soil  to  a  wide,  previously  weighed  pan ; 
weigh  and  spread  out  thinly.    Leave  for  several  days 
where  it  will  not  be  molested.    When  you  think  the 
soil  is  "air-dry"  weigh  again;  the  loss  in  weight 
represents  the  weight  of  the  second  kind  of  mois- 
ture.   This  is  called  capillary  moisture. 

Capillary  moisture  is  held  in  the  capillary  spaces 
or  pores  of  the  soil  and  is  not  influenced  by  gravity, 
but  may  move  in  any 'direction,  usually  upward,  or 
toward  the  drier  soil. 

3.  The   "air-dry"   soil   above   contains   the   third 
kind  of  moisture.     This  we  call  hygroscopic  mois- 
ture.   It  consists  of  a  very  thin  film  of  moisture  sur- 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  IO3 

rounding  each  soil  grain.  It  is  not  free  to  move 
about  like  capillary  moisture,  and  can  be  removed 
only  by  heating  the  soil  to  the  boiling  point  of  water 
(212°  F.),  when  it  passes  off  as  steam. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  becomes  of  the  water  which  falls  upon 
the  ground? 

2.  Can  the  farmer  control  the  three  kinds  of  mois- 
ture ? 

3.  Which  kind  would  be  affected  by  deep  plow- 
ing? 


EXERCISE  64 

SOIL  WATER  HOLDS  PLANT  FOOD 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  show  that  well  water  holds  plant  food  in 
solution,  and  rain  water  does  not. 

Material  needed:  Rain  water,  well  water,  cotton,  two 
tumblers,  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Boil  one  half  gallon  each  of  rain  water  and  well 
water  until  the  volume  is  reduced  one  half.     The 
rain  water  is  boiled  to  drive  off  the  gases  absorbed 
from  the  air,  and  the  well  water  to  make  stronger 
the  mineral  matter  which  it  contains. 

2.  Pour  a  part  of  the  rain  water  in  a  glass  or  a 
small,  wide-mouthed  bottle.     Place  upon  the  water 
a  thin  layer  of  cotton,  and  upon  the  cotton  place  six 
seeds  which  have  already  been  germinated.    Do  like- 
wise with  the  well  water.     Place  in  the  light  in  a 
warm  room. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  shows  the  most  vigorous  growth? 

2.  Why  is  there  no  plant  food  in  the  rain  water? 

3.  In  what  form  do  plants  use  their  food? 

4.  Why    should    the    water    in    the    bottles    be 
changed  every  few  days? 


EXERCISE  65 

THE  EFFECT  OF  A  MULCH  IN  PREVENTING  THE 
LOSS   OF   MOISTURE   BY    EVAPORATION 

TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:     To  determine  whether  a  mulch  prevents  the 
loss  of  moisture  from  the  soil  by  checking  evaporation. 

Material  needed:  Two  boxes,  seeds,  potatoes,  straw  or 
leaves,  hoe. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Fill  two  flower  pots,  or  two  boxes  of  equal  size, 
with  rich  soil  and  plant  seeds  in  earth.     Saturate 
each  pot  with  water  and  cover  the  soil  in  one  pot 
with  a  layer  of  fine  leaves,  or  other  organic  matter. 
When  the  young  plants  come  up,  thin  out  to  an 
equal  number.     Keep  the  two  pots  under  like  con- 
ditions of  temperature,  but  do  not  water  either  pot. 
Which  pot  keeps  the  plants  in  a  growing  condition 
longer? 

2.  Repeat  this  experiment  under  field  conditions. 
Plant  two  small  plots  of  equal  fertility  in  potatoes; 
cover  one  with  a  mulch  of  wheat  straw  and  cultivate 
the  other  one  in  the  usual  way.     Which  produces 
the  better  yield?     In  case  there  is  a  wet  season, 
would  you  expect  much  difference  in  the  yield  of  the 
two  plots? 


EXERCISE  66 

AIR  IN  SOILS 
TIME:  MAY  OR  JUNE 

Object:  To  observe  how  plants  suffer  for  want  of  air. 
Material  needed:  Two  flower  pots,  seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill  two  flower  pots  with  rich  soil  and  plant  seeds 
in  each;  when  the  plants  are  3  inches  high,  keep  the 
soil  in  one  soaked  with  water  all  the  time  and  apply 
water  to  the  other  pot  only  as  it  is  needed.  In  a 
few  days  observe  carefully  the  difference  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  two  plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  plant  grows  the  faster? 

2.  What  difference  do  you  observe  in  the  color 
of  the  two  plants? 

3.  Do  you  think  there  is  any  difference  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  two  pots? 

4.  How  does  water  affect  the  amount  of  air  in 
the  soil? 

5.  Why  are  undrained  fields  unprofitable? 


EXERCISE  67 

WATER  CAPACITY  OF  SOILS 

TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  determine  the  water  capacity  of  soils. 
Material  needed:  Three  lamp  chimneys,  cheese  cloth; 
scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Tie  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  over  the  large  end  of 
each  of  three  lamp  chimneys,  and  weigh  each  sep- 
arately. Place  samples  of  clay,  loam,  and  sand  near 
the  stove  for  24  hours  or  until  they  are  dry.  Fill 
one  chimney  with  clay,  one  with  loam,  and  one  with 
sand ;  hold  over  a  vessel  and  saturate  the  contents 
of  the  chimneys  with  water.  Let  stand  until  the 
water  ceases  to  drip,  then  weigh  and  tabulate  the 
data  as  follows: 


Kind 
of  Soil 

Weight  of 
Chimney 

Weight  of 
Soil 

Weight  of 
Water  Absorbed 

Per  cent,  of 
Water  Absorbed 

Clay  

Loam.  ....... 

Sand    

• 

EXERCISE  68 

THE  EFFECT  OF  ORGANIC  MATTER  AND  SAND. 
ON  BAKING  OF  CLAY  SOILS 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  show  the  degree  to  which  organic  matter 
and  sand  prevent  the  baking  of  clay  soils. 

Material  needed:  Five  flower  pots  or  boxes,  sand,  clay, 
humus. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Secure  five  one-gallon  flower  pots  or  jars,  pro- 
vided with  drainage  outlets ;  fill  them  to  within  I 
inch  of  the  top  as  follows: 

No.  i — Clay. 

No.  2 — Clay  thoroughly  mixed  with  20  per  cent, 
of  humus. 

No.  3 — Clay  thoroughly  mixed  with  30  per  cent, 
of  sand. 

No.  4 — Clay  thoroughly  mixed  with  20  per  cent, 
of  sand. 

No.  5 — Clay  thoroughly  mixed  with  30  per  cent, 
of  humus. 

2.  Use  the  same  amount  of  water  in  each  case 
and  thoroughly  saturate  the  soil.    Place  the  pots  in 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  until  the  soil  is  baked. 
Note  the  qase  with  which  the  different  soils  can  be 
pulverized  by  the  fingers. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  109 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  sand  and  humus  affect  the  soil? 

2.  What  plants  would  have  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  coming  up  in  a  baked  clay  soil? 

3.  Can  the   farmer  do  anything  to  prevent  the 
baking  of  the  soil? 


TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  whether  soils  have  the  power  to  "fix" 
plant  food. 

Material  needed:  Lamp  chimney,  cheese  cloth,  ammonia 
water,  potash,  litmus  paper. 

DIRECTIONS 

Tie  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  over  one  end  of  a  lamp 
chimney;  fill  the  chimney  with  clay  soil  or  garden 
loam,  and  pack  firmly.  Set  the  chimney  in  a  vessel 
and  pour  in  the  top  some  ammonia  water.  Do  you 
detect  any  odor  of  ammonia  in  the  water  which  has 
passed  through  the  soil?  Repeat  the  experiment 
with  coarse  sand,  and  note  what  results. 

Repeat  the  experiment  by  pouring  over  the  soil 
liquid  manure  and  water  containing  potash  in  solu- 
tion. What  effect  has  the  soilvon  the  liquid?  Test 
the  potash  solution  with  litmus  paper.  How  is  it 
affected? 

Facts. — Clay,  which  contains  alumina  and  silica 
combined,  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron  are  good  fixing 
agents.  These  fixing  agents  prevent  the  loss  of 
plant  food  by  leaching.  Many  farmers  make  the  mis- 
take of  applying  immediately  available  ingredients 
of  plant  food,  as  nitrate  .of  soda,  before  the  crop  is 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


III 


ready  to  use  it.  Rock  phosphate  and  bone  meal  are 
ingredients  which  may  be  applied  a  considerable 
time  before  plants  are  ready  for  their  use.  We 
should  not  fail  to  state  that  the  "fixing"  agents  men- 
tioned above  are  inorganic  substances,  and  that 
humus  is  of  equal  importance  as  a  "fixing"  agent. 

The  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  depends 
largely  upon  three  things:  (i)  The  kind  of  rock 
from  which  the  soil  is  formed;  (2)  the  kind  and 
quantity  of  plants  grown  thereon;  (3)  and  the  "fix- 
ing" power  of  the  soil. 


EXERCISE  70 

COLLECTION  OF   TYPES  OF  SOILS 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  make  a  collection  of  all  the  types  of  soil 
in  the  community;  classify  them;  study  their  characteristic 
growth;  and  find  average  price  an  acre. 

Material  needed:  Various  types  of  soil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Have  each  student  bring  from  the  home  farm  as 
.many  types  of  soil  as  he  can  find,  such  as  clay,  sand, 
loam,  clay  loam,  sandy  loam,  gravelly  soil  and  leaf 
mold.  Classify  and  tabulate  your  results  as  follows  1 


Collector 

Kind  of  Soil 

Where  Found 

Characteristic 
Growth 

Price  of  Soil 
per  Acre 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  some  soils  more  valuable  than  others? 

2.  Do  certain  crops  grow  better  on  some  soils  than 
on  others?    Why? 


EXERCISE  71 

*SOIL  WASHING  AND  ITS  PREVENTION 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  causes  of  soil  washing  and  means 
for  its  prevention. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Outline  conditions  which  determine  the  extent 
of  soil  washing. 

2.  Outline  means  by  which  the  washing  of  soils 
may  be  prevented. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  farmers  in  the  community  who 
have  badly  washed  fields.    Were  these  fields  washed 
during  the  possession  of  the  present  owners? 


EXERCISE  72 

CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  FOUND  IN  PLANTS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  learn  what  elements  are  found  in  plants. 
Material  needed:  Note-book,  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  the  list  of  elements  in  the  diagram  below. 
Notice  their  grouping. 


Plant 


(  Carhon 

1    Hydrogen 

f  Nitrogenous  matter—  Proteids  .  . 
Volatile    4                                   (  Starch  1 

.  •<   Oxygen 
I    Nitrogen 
I  Sulphur 

matter 

Non-nitrogenous  J   vy'ood     1 

Carbon 

*           matter 
Gum 

Hydrogen 

I  Oil 

Oxygen 

Dry 

matter  - 

f  Phosphorus 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Calcium 

Iron 

Chlorine 

Silicon 

Manganese 

. 

Magnesium 

Moisture. 


Hydrogen 
Oxygen 


EXERCISE  73 

HOW  TO    DISTINGUISH    FERTILIZER    IN- 
GREDIENTS 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 


Object:    To  learn  how  to  distinguish  the  different  fer- 
tilizer ingredients. 

Material  needed:  Fertilisers  of  various  kinds. 


DIRECTIONS 

Let  the  teacher  write  to  the  nearest  fertilizer  com- 
pany for  small  samples  of  rock  phosphate,  acid  phos- 
phate, bone  meal,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
potash,  kainit,  dried  blood,  gypsum,  Thomas  slag, 
etc.  Place  them  before  the  class,  and  let  their  char- 
acteristics be  studied  until  each  ingredient  can  be 
readily  recognized.  w/ 

Arrange  the  substances  studied  in  groups  accord- 
ing to  the  kinds  of  plant  food  which  they  contain. 


Phosphoric  Acid 

- 
Nitrogen 

Potash 



EXERCISE  74 


THE    EFFECT    OF    TOO    STRONG    FOOD 
TIONS  IN  THE  SOIL 


SOLU- 


TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object :  To  determine  if  plants  may  be  injured  by  strong 
food  solutions. 

Material  needed:  Flower  pot,  seeds,  salt  solution. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Select  a  young  plant  which  has  developed  its 
first  leaves.  Observe  its  firmness.  Place  it  in  a 
5  per  cent,  salt  solution  for  a  few  minutes ;  remove 
from  solution  and  observe  the  change  in  its  rigidity. 
How  do  you  account  for  the  change?  Immerse  the 
young  plant  in  fresh  water  for  an  hour  and  test 
again.  Does  it  regain  its  firmness? 


FIG.  25 — EFFECT  OF  STRONG  SOLUTIONS  ON  PLANT  GROWTH  :  0,  SALT 

ADDED;  b,  SALT  BEING  WASHED  OUT;  c,  PLANTS  REVIVED 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  IIJ 

2.  Plant  seeds  in  a  small  flower  pot.  When  tin- 
plants  are  3  inches  high,  pour  a  10  per  cent,  salt  solu- 
tion upon  the  soil,  using  care  so  as  not  to  let  the 
solution  come  in  contact  with  the  stem  or  leaves  of 
the  plants.  After  24  hours  note  the  appearance  of 
the  plants.  Let  a  small  stream  of  water  run  upon 
the  soil  for  several  hours.  Note  if  any  change  has 
occurred  in  the  plants'  positions. 

Explanation. — Often  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  is 
in  the  form  of  salts,  which,  if  too  strong,  cannot  be 
taken  up  by  the  plants.  Strong  solutions  of  salts 
injure  plants  by  drawing  water  from  them.  We 
have  these  conditions  in  salt  marshes,  alkali  soils, 
and  peat  bogs. 


EXERCISE  75 

EFFECT  OF  NITROGEN  ON  THE  GROWTH  AND 
COLOR  OF  PLANTS 

TIME:  DURING  GROWING  WEATHER 

Object:     To  find  the  effect  of  nitrogen  on  the  growth 
and  color  of  plants. 

Material  needed:  Flower  pots,  seeds,  sodium  nitrate. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Plant  seeds  in  two  flower  pots  or  boxes,  and 
keep  in  a  warm  place  until  they  germinate.     Exer- 
cise care  so  as  to  have  the  same  kind  of  soil  in  each 
pot. 

2.  Take  I  ounce  of  sodium  nitrate,  calcium  nitrate, 
or  potassium  nitrate   and   dissolve   in    I   gallon  of 
water.     Label  this  "Nitrate  solution." 

3.  Water  one  pot  with  well  or  spring  water,  the 
other  with  the  nitrate  solution.     Watch  the  growth 
for  three  or  four  weeks.    Which  grows  faster?  Note 
the  difference  in  color. 


EXERCISE  76 

MIXING  FERTILIZERS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  mix  fertilizers  in  definite  pro- 
portions. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

The  ingredients  of  plant  food  in  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer are  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and  potash.  We 
often  hear  of  "8-2-2"  goods.  This  means  that  the 
fertilizer  contains  8  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid, 
2  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent,  of  potash. 

Suppose  you  want  to  mix  at  home  a  fertilizer 
equivalent  to  the  one  mentioned  above,  and  wish 
to  use  acid  phosphate,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  muriate 
of  potash.  You  will  find  the  amounts  of  each  in- 
gredient as  follows: 

2,000  X  -08  =  160  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 
2.000  X  -O2  =   40  nitrogen. 

2,000  X  -O2  —   40       "       potash. 

Now,  by  turning  to  tables  I,  2,  and  3  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, you  will  find  that  acid  phosphate  contains 
16  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid ;  nitrate  of  soda,  16 
IKT  cent,  of  nitrogen;  and  muriate  of  potash,  50  per 


120  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

cent,  of  potash.    Then  the  amount  of  each  ingredi- 
ent is  found  as  follows: 

160  —  .16  =  1,000  pounds  acid  phosphate. 
40  —  .16=     250       "        nitrate  of  soda. 
40  —  .50  =      So       "       muriate  of  potash. 

Total. . .  1,330  pounds. 

2000 — 1330  =  670,  the  amount  of  filler  or  make- 
weight to  be  added  to  bring  it  to  a  ton  basis.  Fine 
sand  or  dry  <iirt,  well  pulverized,  may  be  used  as  a 
filler. 


EXERCISE  77 

FERTILIZER  PROBLEMS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  become  familiar  with  the  method  of  finding 
the  amounts  of  fertilizer  ingredients  in  any  combination. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Follow  the  method  used  in  Exercise  76  and  solve 
the  following  problems: 

1.  Work  out  the  amounts  of  each  ingredient  in  a 
10-2-4   fertilizer,   using   acid   phosphate,   nitrate   of 
soda,  and  muriate  of  potash. 

2.  What  would  be  the  weight  of  filler  in  one  ton 
of  an  8-2-4  fertilizer,  using  ground  bone,  cotton-seed 
meal,  and  kainit? 

3.  With  phosphoric  acid  at  4  cents,  nitrogen  at 
15  cents,  and  potash  at  5  cents  a  pound,  what  would 
a  ton  of  each  of  the  above  fertilizers  cost? 


EXERCISE  78 

QUESTIONING  THE  SOIL 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  find  out  the  needs  of  land  for  maximum 
crop  production  by  questioning  the  soil. 

Material  needed:  Tape  line,  stakes,  fertilisers,  labels. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Lay  out  12  plots  for  a  fertilizer  test.  Let  the 
plots  be  2  rods  square,  and  have  paths  4  feet  wide 
left  between  them. 

The  following  diagram  shows  the  arrangement  of 
the  plots  and  the  amount  of  fertilizer  ingredients  for 
each : 


Nitrate  of  Soda 
150  Ibs.  per  A.,  3^  Ibs.  per  plot 

No  Fertilizer 

Acid  Phosphate 
240  Ibs.  per  A.,  6  Ibs.  per  plot 

Acid  Phos.,       240  Ibs.,  6  Ibs. 
Muriate  of  P.,    80    "      2    " 

per  plot 

. 

Muriate  of  Potash 
80  Ibs.,  2  Ibs.  per  plot 

Nitrate  of  S.,    150  Ibs.,  3%  Ibs 
Acid  Phos.,      240     "    6         " 
Muriate  of  P.,  80     "    2         " 

perplot 

No  Fertilizer 

Farmyard  Manure 
10  tons 
500  Ibs.  per  plot 

Nitrate  of  S.,  isolbs.,  3^  Ibs.  perplot 
Acid  P..         240   "     6       "        " 

Farmyard  Manure 
15  tons 
750  Ibs.  per  plot 

Nitrate  of  S.,  150  Ibs.,  3^  Ibs.  perplot 
Muriate  of  P.,    80   "    2       "        " 

No  Fertilizer 

FERTILIZER  EXPERIMENTS 


RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  123 

2.  Prepare  a  label  for  each  plot,  showing  the  fer- 
tilizer used  and  the  date  of  seeding.  Use  the  form 
given  in  Exercise  31  for  keeping  the  records. 

The  successful  farmer  of  the  future  must  be  an 
experimenter  in  a  small  way. 


EXERCISE  79 


HOW  CLOVER  HELPS  THE  FARMER 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  how  clover  and  other  legumes  benefit 
the  farmer. 

Material  needed:  Fruit  jar,  clover  seed,  nodules  from 
roots  of  legumes. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Fill  a  fruit  jar  almost  full  of  moist  garden  soil, 
and  in  it  plant  about  50  seeds  of  common  red  clover. 
Screw  on  the  top  loosely 

and  place  the  jar  in  a 
warm  place.  When  the 
plants  are  well  grown, 
pour  in  enough  water  to 
moisten  the  soil  thor- 
oughly. Gently  pull  out 
the  plants  so  as  not  to  in- 
jure the  roots  and  find 
the  swellings.  Do  all  the 
plants  have  swellings  on 
their  roots?  Do  they 
vary  in  size? 

2.  Repeat   the  experi- 
ment   with    other   types 
of  soil,  and  note  whether 

,,  .  ...  FIG.   26 — NODULES   ON    SOY 

there  is  any  variation  in  BEAN  ROOTS 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  125 

the  number  of  nodules  on  the  roots  of  plants  grown 
in  different  soils. 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  nodules  of  other  plants,  as 
alfalfa,  peas,  beans,  and  vetches.  Do  you  see  any 
variation  in  the  size,  form,  and  number  of  nodules 
taken  from  different  plants? 

Facts  about  legumes. — The  plants  named  above 
are  legumes,  nitrogen  gatherers.  The  swellings  on 
the  roots  of  these  plants  are  the  homes  of  minute 
swarms  of  little  beings  which  are  able  to  change  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  into  nitrates  for  the  use  of  plants. 
They  not  only  furnish  the  plants  on  which  they  live 
nitrates  for  food,  but  even  more  than  is  needed  and  in 
this  way  make  the  soil  fertile.  Legumes  furnish  to 
the  soil  the  most  expensive  fertilizer  ingredient. 
Farmers  who  grow  legumes  extensively  are  not  com- 
pelled, except  in  rare  cases,  to  purchase  a  fertilizer 
containing  nitrogen.  Many  farmers  of  the  South 
supply  nitrogen  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  cotton-seed 
meal. 


EXERCISE  80 

TESTING  SEED  CORN 
TIME:  BEFORE  PLANTING  TIME 

Object:     To  determine  what  ears  should  be  used  for 
seed. 

Material  needed:  Germination  box,  sand,  cloth,  corn 
ears. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Take  a  shallow  box  and  partly  fill  it  with  sand. 
Let  the  sand  be  as  fine  as  can  be  procured ;  it  will 
hold  moisture  longer  than  coarse  sand,  thus  render- 
ing the  conditions  more  favorable  for  germination. 
Moisten  the  sand  and  stir  it  up  with  the  fingers  so 
the  moisture  will  be  uniform.     Avoid  an  excess  of 
moisture,  for  then  the  corn  would  rot.     Have  it  so 
that  no  water  will  run  out  of  the  box  if  it  should  be 
tilted.    Over  the  sand  place  a  cloth  which  has  been 
checked  by  lines  2  inches  apart.     Let  each  square 
be  numbered  i,  2,  3,  etc.,  to  correspond  with  the  ears, 
which  are  numbered  also. 

2.  Now  take  each  ear  separately,  and  remove  four 
kernels,  taking  them  from  different  parts  of  the  ear. 
Take  one  from  the  butt,  one  from  the  tip  and  two 
from  the  middle ;  but  the  middle  ones  should  not  be 
taken  together.    Turn  the  ear  each  time  so  as  not  to 
get  them  in  a  straight  line.    Place  the  kernels  from 
the  different  ears  in  their  numbered  squares  and 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  127 

cover  with  a  moist  cloth  to  avoid  excessive  evapora- 
tion. Over  the  cloth  place  a  layer  of  moist  sand. 
If  the  sand  becomes  too  dry,  sprinkle  warm  water 
over  it  until  it  is  thoroughly  moistened ;  but  remem- 
ber the  water  must  be  warm,  not  hot. 

Keep  the  box  at  a  temperature  of  about  75°  F., 
and  examine  it  daily.  Remove  every  kernel  that 
sprouts  and  keep  count.  Be  sure  to  wait  until  you 
are  satisfied  no  other  kernels  will  sprout.  Ears 
whose  kernels  germinate  less  than  92  per  cent, 
should  not  be  planted.  Do  not  plant  ears  whose 
kernels  show  a  slow,  feeble  germination. 


EXERCISE  81 

VARIATION  IN  INDIVIDUAL  EARS 
TIME:  SPRING  AND  FALL  TERMS 

Object:  To  study  and  record  the  variation  in  individual 
ears. 

Material  needed:  Space  in  field,  ears  of  corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  12  or  more  good  ears  for  this  exercise,  and 
plant  in  the  corn  field  one  ear  to  the  row.  Have 
the  rows  numbered  and  plant  by  hand  so  it  may  all 
be  done  as  nearly  alike  as  possible.  Let  the  ground 
be  uniform  in  fertility,  drainage,  etc.,  so  that  differ- 
ences in  productiveness  in  individual  ears  can  be 
noted.  Keep  a  record  of  the  individual  rows,  and 
tabulate  your  data  as  follows : 


Row  No. 

Bushels 
an  Acre 

Per  cent, 
of  Stand 

No.  Broken 
Stalks 

No.  Barren 
Stalks 

No.  Suckers 

EXERCISE  82 

SEED  CORN  TRANSMITTING  CHARACTERISTICS 
TIME:  SPRING  AND  FALL  TERMS 

Object:  To  determine  how  far  certain  characteristics 
will  be  transmitted  by  seed  corn. 

Material  needed:  Space  in  field,  cars  of  corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  one  ear  each  of  the  following  types :  large 
cobs,  small  cobs,  tapering  ears,  wide  space  between 
the  rows,  cylindrical  ears,  small  ears,  and  large  ears. 
Number  each  ear  and  plant  by  hand,  one  ear  to  a 
row.  Have  the  rows  numbered  to  correspond  to 
the  number  of  the  ear.  When  the  corn  has  matured, 
harvest  the  rows  separately  and  observe  whether 
the  row  planted  with  seed  from  the  ear  having  a  large 
cob  has  a  greater  percentage  of  large  cobs  than  the 
other  rows.  Likewise  observe  the  particular  char- 
acteristic of  each  individual  row. 

What  resemblance  do  the  plants  and  the  cars 
bear  to  the  plants  which  bore  the  seed  and  to  the 
ears  from  which  the  seed  was  selected? 


EXERCISE  83 

MECHANICAL  SELECTION  OF  CORN 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  study  types  of  corn  by  mechanical  selection. 
Material  needed:  Scales,  ears  of  corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

i.  Take  from  I  to  5  bushels  of  average  field  corn; 
divide  into  large,  medium,  and  small  ears.  Count 
and  weigh  the  ears  of  each  lot  and  record  as  follows : 


•Number        Weight         Bushels 

Large  ears 

Medium  ears 

Small  ears.. . 


2.  Use  the  same  corn  and  make  other  divisions 
named  below: 

Number         Per  cent,  by  Number 

Long  slim  ears 

Short  slim  ears 

Short  thick  ears 

Ideal  ears 

Number        Per  cent,  by  Number 

Cylindrical  ears 

Tapering  ears 

Well   filled   butts 

Well  filled  tips , 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AUUCULTURE  131 

It  should  not  be  expected  that  each  student  work 
out  all  the  parts  of  this  exercise.  Students  should 
be  divided  into  groups,  and  allowed  to  work  out 
M'-ne  part  of  the  exercise  in  groups.  It  would  be  well 
to  have  some  of  the  students  repeat  the  exercise 
at  their  homes,  and  then  make  a  comparison  of  the 
results  before  the  whole  class. 


EXERCISE  84 

PER  CENT.  OF  CORN  AND  COB 


TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  determine  whose  corn  has  the  greatest  per- 
centage of  corn  to  cob,  and  to  find,  if  possible,  the  cause 
of  this  variation. 

Material  needed:  Scales,  cars  of  corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Have   a    limited   number  of   boys   weigh   and 
shell,   at   their   homes,   a   sack   or   basket  of   corn. 
Weigh  the  shelled  corn  and  calculate  the  percentage 
of  corn  to  cob.     This  should  be  from  86  to  87  per 
cent.    Note  whose  corn  has  the  greatest  percentage ; 
whose  has  the  least.     Can  any  reasons  be  given  for 
this  variation? 

2.  Select  other  students  and  have  them  bring  to 
the  school  10  ears  each  of  the  following  types :  taper- 
ing ears,  cylindrical  ears,  long  slim  ears,  short  thick 
ears,  ears  with  well  filled  tips,  ears  with  well  filled 
butts,   ears  with   large  cobs,   and  ears  with  small 
cobs.    Weigh.    Shell  and  find  percentage  of  corn  to 
cob,  and  record  the  results  as  follows : 


Name  of  Student 

Type  of  Corn 

Per  cent,  of  Corn  to  Cob 

EXERCISE  85 

TYPES  OF  SEED  CORN 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  good  and  bad 
ears. 

Material  needed:  Labels,  crib  of  corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  the  types  of  corn  in  the  following  cuts  and 
select  ears  from  the  crib  at  your  home  to  represent 
all  the  types  shown  in  this  exercise. 

The  following  table  gives  the  per  cent,  of  protein, 
oil,  and  ash  in  the  three  parts  of  the  kernel : 


Per  cent,  of 
Protein 

Per  cent,  of 
Oil 

Per  cent,  of 
Ash 

Total 

•SA      6 

Floury  portion  

o  8 

134 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


135 


FIG.  28 — SHAPE  OF  EARS 
4— cylindrical;  5— tapering;  6— very  tapering 


136 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  137 


FIG.   31 — VARIOUS   BUTTS 
38— well  rounded;  29— moderately  rounded  ;  30 — shallow  rounded 


FIG.    32 — EAR   TIPS 
32 — well  filled  ;  33 — partly  filled  ;  34 — poorly  filled 


138 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


139 


140 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


FIG.   37 — SIZE  OF  COB 
35 — too  large  ;  36 — proper  size  ;  37 — too  small 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


141 


FIG.   38 — FORMS  OF   KERNELS 
Pairs  4  and  5  have  the  best  form 


FIG.  39 — LARGE  AND  SMALL  GERMS 


142 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


EXERCISE  86 

COMPARISON   OF   KERNELS   OF  VARIETIES  OF 
CORN 

TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  variation  in  the  kernels  of  varie- 
ties of  corn. 

Material  needed:  Tape  line,  varieties  of  corn,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  carefully  the  variation  in  the  kernels  of  four 
varieties  of  corn,  and  tabulate  your  data  as  follows : 

VARIATION    IN    KERNELS 


Names  of  Varieties 

No.  of  kernels  in  i  pound  

Average  weight  of  kernel  (deci- 
mally)   

Average    length    of    kernels    in 
inches  .  .         .... 

Average  width  in  inches  

Average  thickness  in  inches  

EXERCISE  87 

COMPARISON    OF    EARLY,    LATE,    AND    MEDIUM 
STALKS  OF  THE  SAME  VARIETY 

TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Object:    To  compare  early,  late,  and  medium  stalks  of 
the  same  variety. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  paper  tags,  bags,  twine. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Label  40  stalks  with  paper  tags  marked  "Early 
stalks/'  just  as  the  tassels  begin  to  appear.    When 
you  think  about  one  half  the  tassels  have  appeared, 
label    40   other    stalks ;    let    the    labels   be   marked 
"Medium  stalks."    Again  when  the  last  tassels  are 
appearing,  label  40  stalks  with  tags  marked  "Late 
stalks."    When  the  corn  is  mature,  harvest  and  com- 
pare the  yield  of  each  lot. 

2.  Repeat   the   same  experiment   with   the   silks. 
Observe  closely  the  degrees  of  pollination  in  the  dif- 
ferent cases. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Do  you  find  any  variation  in  the  yield  of  early, 
medium  and  late  stalks? 

2.  If  so,  how  do  you  account  for  this  variation? 

3.  What  advantage  or  disadvantage  would  there 
be  in  having  a  variety  of  corn  whose  silking  and 
tasseling  period  is  short? 

4.  Are  ears  of  corn  from  replanted  hills  better  or 
more  poorly  filled  than  those  of  the  main  planting? 


EXERCISE  88 

TASSELING  AND  SILKING  PERIOD 
TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Object:    To  study  the  range  of  the  tasseling  and  silking 
period. 
Material  needed:  Corn  field,  rule,  note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  For  this  exercise  select  a  single  row  of  corn ; 
beginning  at  one  end  count  off  100  hills.    Begin  the 
exercise  just  as  the  first  tassel  appears.    At  a  fixed 
hour  each  day  pass  along  the  row,  and  count  the 
number  of  tassels  and  silks  which  have  appeared. 
Keep  record  in  note-book,  also  the  days  which  have 
rain  or  sunshine.    Continue  your  observations  until 
there  is  no  longer  an  increase  in  the  number  of  silks 
and  tassels. 

2.  With  the  chart  below  as  a  model,  construct  a 
graphic   chart   showing   the   tasseling   and   silking 
period. 

Supposed  Data: 

Total  number  of  tassels  to  appear  each  day : 

Total  number  of  silks  to  appear  each  day : 

o— o— o— 3— 5— 3— 5— 23— 40— 2&— 16— 5 

Observe  that  the  number  of  silks  or  tassels  which 
appear  each  day  is  represented  by  the  perpendicular 


146 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


45 
40 
35 
30 
25 
20 
15 
10 
5 

0 

D/> 

i 

\ 
\ 
\ 

i 
i 
i 

\ 

\ 

\ 

i 
i 

i 

\ 
\ 

/ 

\/ 

\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 

/ 

,x 

\ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

i 
i 

i 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

»— 

/ 

i 
i 
i 

\ 

\ 

\ 
\ 

\ 

__.  —  • 

—  ~-~_ 

/' 

^ 

•~"' 

/ 

\ 

ys 

TA 

2        3       4       5        6       7        8       9       10        II       i; 

S.SFI  S                                           fill  KS 

FIG.    42 — CHART    OF    CURVES    SHOWING    RANGE    OF    TASSELING    AND 
SILKING   PERIOD 


line  extending  from  the  base  of  the  chart  to  the 
curve. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is   the   length   of  the   tasseling  period? 
Silking  period? 

2.  Do  you  think  the  number  of  silks  or  tassels  to 
appear  daily  was  influenced  in  any  way?    If  so,  by 
what? 

3.  Why   is   there  such  variation  in   the  time  in 
which  silks  appear? 

4.  Which    would    be    of    any    advantage    to    the 
farmer  to  have,  a  variety  whose  silking  period  is 
short  or  long?    Why? 


EXERCISE  89 

PERIOD  OF  POLLINATION  OF  CORN 
TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Ob.ect:    To  determine  at  what  period  during  the  day 
pollination  is  most  effective. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  rule,  note-book.  , 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Cover  a  large  number  of  shoots  just  before  the 
silks  appear,  as   in    Exercise  91.      Beginning   with 
4  A.M.,  divide  the  day  into  periods  of  four  hours 
each  as  follows : 

1.  First  period,  4  to  6  A.M. 

2.  Second  period,  6  to  8  A.M. 

3.  Third  period,  8  to  10  A.M. 

4.  Fourth  period,  10  to  12  M. 

5.  Fifth  period,  12  to  i  P.M. 

6.  Sixth  period,   i   to  3  P.M. 

7.  Seventh  period,  3  to  5  P.M. 

8.  Eighth  period,  5  to  7  P.M. 

2.  When  the  silks  are  3  or  4  inches  long,  remove 
the  bags  from  10  ears  and  leave  exposed  during  the 
first  period,  then  replace  the  bags  and  tie.    Continue 
the  exposure  throughout  the  eight  periods.     In  re- 
moving or  replacing  the  bags,  use  care  so  as  not  to 
shake  the  pollen  from  the  stalks.     Label  each  set 
of  exposures,  giving  date  and  period. 


148  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

3.  When  the  corn  is  harvested,  observe  the 
amount  of  pollination  of  the  ears  during  the  differ- 
ent periods. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  period  is  most  favorable  for  fertilization? 

2.  When  does  the  corn  flower  open? 


EXERCISE  90 

EFFECT  OF  WIND   ON  THE   POLLINATION   OF 
CORN 

TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Object:    To  learn  how  much  the  wind  affects  the  pollina- 
tion of  corn. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  rule,  note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Cover  two  dozen  shoots  just  before  the  silks 
appear,  as  in  Exercise  91.    When  the  silks  are  in  the 
receptive  stage,  which  can  be  told  6y  the  length, 
select  a  time  during  the  day  when  there  is  a  rather 
brisk  breeze  and  expose  12  silks  a  certain  number 
of  hours.    On  another  day,  when  the  air  is  still,  ex- 
pose the  other  set  of  12  the  same  number  of  hours. 
Replace  the  paper  bags  in  each  case  and  label  the 
two    sets,    giving    date,    length'  of    exposure,    and 
treatment. 

2.  When  the  corn  has  been  harvested  note  any 
variation  in  the  degree  of  pollination  of  the  two  sets. 


EXERCISE  91 

RECEPTIVE  STAGE  OF  SILKS 
TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Object:    To  find  the  stage  in  which  silks  are  ready  to 
receive  the  pollen. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  rule,  note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Tie  paper  bags  over  12  or  more  young  shoots 
just  before  the  silks  appear.    Apply  pollen  to  three 
of  the  shoots  just,  as  the  first  silks  put  in  appear- 
ance ;  treat  other  sets  of  three  in  the  same  way  when 
the  silks  are  2,  4,  and  6  inches  long.     Leave  the 
fourth  set  10  days  after  the  silks  appear  before  ap- 
plying the  pollen,  but  keep  covered  all  this  time. 
The  pollen  should  be  applied  early  in  the  morning, 
say  between  six  and   eight  o'clock.     This  can  be 
done  by  removing  the  paper  bag  and  shaking  over 
the  silk   a  tassel   which   is   shedding  its  pollen  in 
abundance.    After  this  is  done,  replace  the  bag  and 
tie  as  before.     The  treated  ears  should  be  watched 
every  two  or  three  days  so  as  to  loosen  the  strings 
in  case  they  are  interfering  with  the  growing  ear. 
Each  stalk  should  bear  a  label  showing  the  date 
of  pollination  and  the  length  of  silk  when  treated. 

2.  When    the    corn    has    matured,    harvest    the 
treated  ears  and  observe  the  degree  of  pollination 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  151 

in  each  set.  Draw  a  conclusion  as  to  the  receptive 
stage.  How  long  were  the  silks  in  the  last  set 
pollinated?  Why  did  they  ^row  to  such  length? 
Observe  the  position  of  the  kernels  in  each  set.  In 
which  set  are  the  butts,  tips,  and  middle  portions  of 
the  ears  best  filled? 


EXERCISE  92 

THE    EFFECT    OF    DETASSELING    CORN    UPON 
THE  YIELD 

TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  FLOWERING 

Object:     To  find  whether  removing  the  tassels  as  they 
appear  affects  the  yield. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  labels,  knife. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Select  a  field  of  uniform  fertility,  drainage,  etc. 
Use  from  24  to  50  rows  in  this  exercise  and  cut  out 
the  tassels  as  they  appear  from  every  other  row. 
Exercise  care  so  as  not  to  cut  out  any  of  the  blades. 
You  will  find  a  wide  range  in  the  tasseling  period 
which  will  necessitate  going  over  the  rows  two  or 
three  times.     Label  all  the  detasseled  rows. 

2.  When  the  corn  is  mature,  harvest  the  detas- 
seled rows  separately  and  note  the  yield.     Do  like- 
wise with  the  rows  not  detasseled. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Do  you  find  any  difference  in  the  yield? 

2.  Do  you  observe  any  difference  in  the  degree  of 
pollination  of  the  detasseled  and  undetasseled  rows? 

3.  Would  there  be  any  advantage  in  detasseling 
weak  or  barren  stalks? 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


153 


EXERCISE  93 

MOISTURE  IN   CORN  AND   COB 
TIME:   WHEN  CORN  is  HARVESTED 

Object:  To  find  the  amount  of  moisture  in  corn  and 
cob  at  harvesting  time. 

Material  needed:  Corn  ears,  scales,  pans. 

DIRECTIONS 

Weigh  six  ears  of  corn ;  shell  and  weigh  the 
grain.  Place  the  grain  and  cobs  separately  in  two 
bread  pans,  and  dry  in  a  stove  until  the  weight  be- 
comes constant.  Calculate  total  moisture  in  corn 
and  cob  and  record  data  as  follows : 


Weight  of 
Corn 
before 
Drying 

Weight  of 
Cobs 
before 
Drying 

Weight  of 
Corn 
after 
Drying 

Weight  of 
Cobs 
after 
Drying 

Per  cent,  of 
Moisture 
in  Corn 

Per  cent,  of 
Moisture 
in  Cobs 

EXERCISE  94 

INFLUENCE  OF  A  MISSING  HILL  UPON  THE 
YIELD  OF  ADJOINING  STALKS 

TIME:  WHEN  CORN  is  READY  FOR  HARVESTING 

Object:  To  determine  whether  a  missing  stalk  affects 
the  yield  of  the  stalks  adjoining. 

Material  needed:  Corn  field,  sacks,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  a  field  in  which  the  corn  has  been  uni- 
formly planted.  Pass  through  the  field  hunting  for 
missing  stalks,  and  when  one  is  found,  harvest  the 
ears  from  the  stalks  in  the  same  row  on  each  side 
of  the  missing  one.  Now  step  across  one  row,  to 
the  right  or  left,  and  select  a  stalk  not  adjoining 
a  missing  one;  harvest  the  ears  on  the  stalks  on 
each  side  of  the  selected  one  in  the  same  row.  Un- 
derstand there  must  be  only  one  row  between  the 
two  classes  of  selections,  lest  differences  in  the  soil 
affect  the  yield.  Keep  each  class  in  separate  sacks 
until  you  have  harvested  100  ears  of  each,  or  have 
passed  over  50  missing  hills.  Husk  and  weigh  the 
two  lots.  Does  the  missing  stalk  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  yield  of  the  two  adjoining? 

The  diagram  given  below  shows  what  hills  to 
harvest. 


156  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


********* 

* 

*       *       * 

i                  I                          3 

3 

22                                4 

4 

.r's  represent  the  missing  hill. 

*  s  represent  the  hills. 

Figures  are  placed  under  the  lulls  to  be  harvested. 


EXERCISE  95 

THE  EFFECT  OF  CORN  SMUT  UPON  THE  YIELD 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  find  how  much  corn  is  affected  even  when 
smut  does  not  attack  the  ear. 

Material  needed:  Cornfield,  sacks,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Harvest  ears  whose  stalks  are  affected  by  smut. 
Discard  the  ears  affected  by  smut,  as  we  should  nat- 
urally expect  the  yield  to  be  low  when  the  ears  have 
smut.  Every  time  an  ear  is  pulled  from  an  affected 
stalk,  pull  an  ear  from  the  nearest  stalk  regardless 
of  size  and  keep  in  a  separate  sack.  Weigh  the  two 
lots  separately  and  note  the  difference  in  the  yield. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  smut  classed  as  a  parasite? 

2.  If  it  produces  no  flowers,  how  does  it  repro- 
duce ? 

3.  What  part  of  the  corn  plant  is  usually  most 
affected  ? 

4.  Why  does  one  stage  of  smut  appear  as  a  dark 
mass? 


EXERCISE  96 

EFFECT  OF  METHOD   OF   HARVESTING   MAIZE 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  find  how  methods  of  harvesting  corn  affect 
the  yield. 

Material  needed:  Knife,  labels,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

When  fodder  is  ready  for  pulling,  select  a  part 
of  the  field  where  the  corn  is  as  nearly  uniform 
as  possible;  select  100  hills  for  each  method  of 
treatment  and  treat  as  follows :  Strip  the  blades 
from  the  stalk ;  remove  the  stalk  above  the  ear ;  cut 
the  whole  stalk  and  shock ;  and  leave  the  last  100 
hills  untouched. 

Label  the  four  lots.  When  the  corn  is  ready  for 
harvesting,  husk  and  weigh  each  lot  separately. 
Tabulate  results  as  follows: 


Method  of  Treatment 

Number  of  Pounds 

Loss  or  Gain  in  Pounds 

RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


8  5 


l6o  RURAL  SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  is  the  best  method  of  harvesting  corn? 

2.  What  method  is  commonly  used  in  your  com- 
munity ? 

3.  Can  you  see  any  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  corn  under  the  different  methods  of  treat- 
ment? 

. 


EXERCISE  97 

GLUTEN  IN  FLOUR 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  find  the  gluten  in  flour. 
Material  needed:  Muslin  bag,  flour. 

DIRECTIONS 

Moisten  some  ordinary  wheat  flour  with  water 
and  place  it  in  a  muslin  bag.  Allow  a  stream  of 
water  to  flow  through  the  bag  while  kneading  with 
the  fingers ;  catch  the  milky  fluid  in  a  vessel.  Con- 
tinue the  washing  until  the  water  is  almost  clear. 
You  will  have  remaining  in  the  bag  an  elastic  sub- 
stance of  a  creamy  color  which  is  called  gluten.  It 
is  the  gluten  in  the  flour  which  makes  dough. 
Gluten  is  also  the  proteid  of  the  wheat.  It  forms 
about  10  per  cent,  of  the  flour,  while  the  starch 
forms  about  75  per  cent. 

The  milky  fluid  that  was  washed  from  the  flour 
is  the  starch.  Take  a  small  portion  of  this  and  test 
for  starch.  Add  a  drop  of  iodine  to  it,  and  if  it 
turns  to  a  blue  color,  you  may  know  that  it  is  starch. 


EXERCISE  98 


RELATION  BETWEEN  LENGTH  OF  STRAW  AND 
YIELD  OF  GRAIN   IN  WHEAT 

TIME:  WHEN  WHEAT  is  RIPE 

Object:  To  determine  whether  there  is  any  relation 
between  length  of  straw  and  yield  of  grain  in  wheat. 

Material  needed:  Wheat  field,  knife,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

When  wheat  is  ripe,  go  into  the  field  and  harvest 
100  stalks  each  of  long,  medium,  and  short  straw. 
Cut  every  straw  even  with  the  ground  and  weigh 
the  lots  separately. 

Thresh  the  grain  with  the  hands  (will  take  only 
a  short  time),  blow  out  the  chaff,  weigh  the  grain 
separately,  and  tabulate  results  as  follows: 


Weight  of 
Straw  and 
Grain 

Weight  of 
Straw 

Weight  of 
Grain 

Per  cent, 
of  Straw 

Per  cent, 
of  Grain 

Long  straw 

Medium  " 

Short 

The  same  investigations  may  be  carried  on  with 
rye  and  barley. 


EXERCISE  99 

RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  LENGTH  OF  HEADS 

OF  WHEAT  AND  NUMBER  OF  STALKS 

AN  ACRE 

TIME:  WHEN  WHEAT  is  RIPENING 

Object:    To  determine  the  relation  between  the  length 
of  head  of  wheat  and  the  number  of  stalks  an  acre. 

Material  needed:  Wheat  field,  wire  hoops,  rule. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Place  a  wire   hoop  of  known   area  over  the 
heads  of  wheat,  and  let  it  slip  down  to  the  ground. 
The  hoop  must  include  every  stalk  that  will  stand 
within  the  hoop  without  being  pressed  in  or  forced. 
Count  the  number  of  stalks  within  the  inclosure, 
and  find  the  average  length  of  heads  within  the 
hoop.    This  can  be  done  by  measuring  several  heads, 
adding  the  length  and  dividing  by  the  number  meas- 
ured. 

2.  Repeat  this  in  several  parts  of  the  field.    Tab- 
ulate results  as  follows: 


Number  of 
Trials 

Area  of 
Hoop 

Number  of 
Stalks 
in  Hoop 

Number  of 
Stalks 
per  Acre 

Length  of 
Head 

6        

Is   there   any   relation   between    the   number   of 
stalks  an  acre  and  length  of  head? 


TIME:  FEBRUARY  OR  MARCH 

Object:  To  show  how  to  prevent  oat  smut  in  the  suc- 
ceeding crop  by  treating  the  seeds  with  formaldehyde  be- 
fore they  are  sown. 

Material  needed:  Formaldehyde,  oats,  two  plots. 

DIRECTIONS 

Purchase  at  the  drug  store  I  ounce  of  formalder 
hyde,  which  will  cost  about  5  cents.  Pour  it  into 
about  3  gallons  of  water  and  stir.  Sprinkle  this 
preparation  on  the  seeds  until  they  are  thoroughly 
saturated ;  spread  the  oats  out  thinly  and  let  them 
dry. 

Sow  equal  amounts  On  two  adjoining  plots,  but 
let  one  plot  be  seeded  with  treated  oats,  the  other 
with  untreated  oats. 

At  harvest  time,  count  the  number  of  smutted 
heads  in  the  treated  and  the  untreated  plots. 


EXERCISE  101 


QUALITY  OF  OATS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  find  who  has  the  best  oats  in  the  com- 
munity. 

Material  needed:  Half-bushel  measure,  oats,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Have  several  pupils  weigh  out  I  bushel  of  oats 
at  their  homes  and  bring  weights  to  school.  In 
measuring  out  the  oats,  draw  a  straight  edge  over 
the  half-bushel,  leaving  the  grain  even  with  the  top. 
Let  the  pupils  tabulate  their  results  as  follows : 


Students' 
Names 

Weight  of 
Bushel 

No.  Pounds 
Overweight 

Per  cent. 
Overweight 

Variety 

Each   student  should  copy   the   data  of  all   the 
others. 


EXERCISE  102 

BOTANICAL  STUDY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 
TIME:  WHEN  COTTON  is  FLOWERING 

Object:    To  learn  some  of  the  botanical  characteristics 
of  cotton. 

Material  needed:  Cotton  plant. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  a  blooming  cotton  plant,  study  carefully 
and  fill  the  blanks  outlined  below : 

Root :       Fibrous  or  tap-rooted  ? 

Deep  or  shallow  ? 

Stem :  Erect  or  trailing? Shape  of  stem 

Color  of  bark Color  of  wood 

Leaves :  Alternate  or  opposite  ? Shape 

Number  of  lobes Make  drawing  showing  veins. 

Calyx:  Size Shape 

Corolla :  Color Shape Size 

Petals:  Number Separate  or  coalescent? 

Stamens  and  pistils :  Number  of  each 

Make  drawings  of  stamens  and  pistils. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


i67 


EXERCISE  103 

PROPORTIONS  OF  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE 
COTTON  PLANT 


TIME:  FALL  TERM 


Object:    To  find  the  proportion  of  roots,  stems,  leaves, 
bolls,  etc.,  of  the  cotton  plant. 

Material  needed:  Ten  cotton  plants,  hoe,  knife,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  When  cotton  is  opening  dig  up  10  plants,  tak- 
ing care  to  obtain  as  much  of  the  root  system  as  pos- 
sible.   Separate  the  roots,  stems,  leaves,  bolls,  seed, 
and  lint  of  the  10  plants. 

2.  Weigh  and  tabulate  results  as  follows: 


Parts  of  the  Plant 

Weight 

Per  cent. 

Ounces 

Grams 

Bolls  

Seed  

Lint  

Total  (ten  plants)  

Average  (one  plant)  

EXERCISE  104 

COMPARISON  OF  LARGE,  MEDIUM,  AND  SMALL 
PLANTS 

TIME:  WHEN  COTTON  is  READY  FOR  PICKING 

Object:    To  study  the  variation  in  yield  and  number  of 
bolls  of  plants  of  different  sizes. 

Material  needed:  Cotton  field,  scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Select  25  plants  each  of  large,  medium,  and 
small,  and  count  the  number  of  bolls  in  each  set. 

2.  Pick  the  lint  from  each  set  of  25  plants,  weigh, 
and  tabulate  your  results  as  follows : 


Total  No. 
of  Bolls 

Average 
No.  Bolls 
per  Plant 

Total 
Weight 
Seed  Cotton 

Average 
Weight 
per  riant 

No.  Plants 
to  produce 
1,500 
Pounds 

Medium  
Small  

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  which  set  would  you  select  seed  for  the 
next  year's  crop?     Why? 

2.  Do  you  see  any  relation  between  the  yield  of 
seed  cotton  and  the  number  of  bolls  to  the  plant? 

3.  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  size  of  the 
bolls  and  the  size  of  the  plant? 


EXERCISE  105 

VARIATION  IN  NUMBER  OF  BOLLS  TO  THE 
PLANT 

TIME :    WHEN    THE    BOLLS    ARE    OPENING 

Object:  To  find  and  represent  graphically  the  variation 
in  the  number  of  bolls  of  cotton  per  plant. 

Material  needed:  Cotton  field,  note-book,  rule. 

DIRECTIONS 

Begin  at  the  end  of  a  row  and  count  the  number 
of  bolls  on  each  of  25  plants,  taking  them  as  they 
come  in  the  row. 

Construct  a  graphic  chart  showing  variation  in 
the  number  of  bolls  of  the  25  plants  which  you  have 
studied.  Use  the  chart  below  as  a  model. 

NUMBER  BOLLS 

Supposed  data:  50—22—10—35—48—75—85—100—76—40— 
9 — 30 — 40 — 45 — 25 — 66 — 50 — 48 — 20— 10. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


171 


No. 
Bolls 

100 
95 
90 
65 

60 
75 
70 
65 
60 
55 
50 
45 
40 
33 
30 
25 
20 


Plants  I     2     3    4     5    6     7     fl     9     10    II    12     13    14    15    1C    17    16    19  20 
FIG.  46— CHART  SHOWING  YIELD  OF  BOLLS 


EXERCISE  106 

AN   IDEAL  COTTON  PLANT 
TIME:  WHEN  COTTON  is  READY  FOR  PICKING 

Object:  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  an  ideal  cotton 
plant,  and  the  use  of  the  score  card  for  cotton. 

Material  needed:  Cotton  plants,  score  card. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Study  carefully  the  description  of  an  ideal  cot- 
ton plant  given  below.    Let  each  student  bring  from 
the  home  farm  that  plant  that  he  thinks  approaches 
nearest  this  ideal. 

2.  With  the  use  of  the  score  card  and  directions 
for  judging  cotton  given  in  the  Appendix,  determine 
what  student  has  found  the  best  plant. 

THE  IDEAL  COTTON  PLANT* 

''If  a  careful  observer  went  through  any  cotton 
field  last  fall  he  must  have  noticed  some  very 
inferior  plants,  a  great  many  fairly  good  plants,  and 
a  few  which  were  decidedly  superior  to  these.  The 
inferior  plants  were  not  all  so  on  account  of  a  lack 
of  food  nor  from  improper  cultivation ;  but  rather 
they  were  inferior  because  they  were  built  in  ac- 
cord with  an  inferior  model.  The  great  number  of 
fairly  good  plants  were  built  in  complete  accord 

*By  Professor  Johnson,  University  of  Georgia. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


173 


with  neither  the  inferior  nor  superior  models.  In 
general  form  they  occupied  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion. The  few  superior  plants,  those  bearing  large 
numbers  of  well  shaped,  large  bolls,  were  built  ac- 
cording to  a  distinct  plan  which  seems  to  character- 
ize plants  of  greater  vigor  and  productiveness. 

"In  the  average  field  the  inferior  plants  bear  only 
a  few,  generally  two  or  three  bolls.  The  average 
plant  may  bear  as  many  as  12  to  15  bolls  of  fairly 
good  size  and  form,  while  the  few  really  superior 
plants  many  mature  as  many  as  60  to  100  large,  well 
shaped  and  filled  bolls. 

"Now  let  us  see  something  in  regard  to  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  these  more  productive  plants. 


FIG.   47 — AN    IDEAL   COTTON    PLANT 
(Year  Book,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 


174  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

"First  to  be  noted  is  that  there  is  no  one  variety 
possessing  all  of  the  good  plants,  neither  does  any 
single  variety  contain  all  the  inferior  ones.  In  each 
and  every  variety  there  are  some  good  plants  so  far 
as  that  particular  varietv  goes ;  there  are  also  many 
poor  individuals.  There  are  both  the  desirable  and 
undesirable  in  each  and  every  variety. 

"The  good  or  more  productive  plants  in  any  vari- 
ety will  be  found  to  have  certain  individual  and 
group  characteristics,  which  to  some  extent  may 
be  those  of  the  variety  type. 

"The  best  plants  are  of  medium  height,  with  stalks 
rather  thick  at  the  base,  tapering  gradually,  and 
uniform  from  base  to  apex,  with  good,  strong,  well 
defined  and  closely  set  joints.  The  lower  three  or 
four  branches  should  be  rather  close  to  the  ground, 
short-jointed,  re-branching,  spreading  well  out  from 
the  central  shoot  or  stalk,  thus  admitting  sunshine 
and  air,  which  are  essential  in  bringing  an  abundant 
harvest  to  maturity.  Above  first  or  main  branches 
others  gradually  decreasing  in  length  should  be  ar- 
ranged at  ever  increasing  distance  toward  the  top 
of  the  main  stalk.  Picture  for  a  moment  a  plant 
of  this  form  well  laden  with  good  large  bolls  of  cot- 
ton, some  open  ready  for  the  picker,  others  just  be- 
ginning to  part  the  tips,  while  still  others  retain 
the  deep  color  characteristic  of  health  and  vigor. 

"Small  plants  will  not  be  able  to  make  and  ma- 
ture bolls  enough  to  give  a  good  satisfactory  yield. 
Exceptionally  large  ones  use  too  much  of  their  life 
and  energy  in  making  foliage  and  stem,  and  not 
enough  in  making  fruit,  or  if  fruit  is  produced,  it  is 


RURAL  SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  175 

apt  to  be  so  late  that  much  of  it  will  fail  to  mature 
properly.  The  long-jointed  plant  will  not  set  bolls 
enough,  neither  will  the  one  with  short  branches 
clear  to  the  ground.  The  one  with  long  branches 
well  up  toward  the  top  of  the  stalk  does  not  get 
sunshine  and  air  during  the  early  ripening  period, 
hence  the  harvest  may  be  unduly  delayed,  and  conse- 
quently the  crop  is  injured. 

"The  ideal  plant  should  approach  in  general  shape 
a  cone  whose  diameter  at  the  base  is  equal  to  three- 
fourths  of  its  altitude.  This  gives  a  strong,  well 
balanced,  open-headed  plant." 


EXERCISE  107 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  COTTON  BY  SELECTION 
TIME:  SPRING  AND  FALL  TERMS 

Object:  To  improve  productiveness  of  cotton  by  seed 
selection. 

Material    needed:    Field    and    equipment   for    cotton 
cultivation. 

DIRECTIONS 

The  following  diagram*  illustrates  the  method 
of  selecting  cotton  for  a  period  of  five  years.  If 
followed  carefully,  using  the  utmost  care  in  selec- 
tion, one  should  improve  one's  cotton  seed  wonder- 
fully, and  thus  greatly  increase  the  yield.  It  will  be 
observed  from  this  diagram  that  a  start  is  made 
with  one  plant.  Let  this  plant  be  strong  and  vigor- 
ous, and  be  given  special  attention  as  to  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  bolls,  length  of  lint,  earliness,  and 
yield.  Having  selected  the  best  plant,  plant  all  the 
seed  in  a  small  plot  the  next  year.  From  this  small 
plot  select  the  best  plant,  as  in  the  first  case,  and 
plant  the  seed  from  the  other  plants  in  the  five-acre 
plot.  This  five-acre  plot  will  produce  the  third  year 
enough  seed  to  plant  the  general  crop  the  following 
year.  Continue  the  selection,  as  shown  by  the  dia- 
gram, for  five  years  or  more. 

*From  Year  Book,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


177 


Example: 


EXERCISE  108 

COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  by  comparison  the  relative  amounts 
of  the  constituents  of  farm  products. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Having  been  given  the  composition  of  various 
farm  products  by  the  instructor,  draw  a  diagram 
showing  the  relative  amounts  of  each  constituent. 

DIAGRAM   SHOWING  COMPOSITION  OF  CORN 


Nitrogen-free  extract 
78.4% 


Protein  11.6% 


Fat  5-8% 


F. 


Fiber,  2. 
Ash,     1. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  179 

Example: 

COMPOSITION    OF    CORN 

Nitrogen-free  extract 78.4% 

Protein   n.6% 

Fat 5.8% 

Fiber 2.5% 

Ash 1.7% 

Total  100.0% 


EXERCISE  109 


FERTILIZER   CONSTITUENTS   IN    AMERICAN 
FEEDING  STUFFS 

TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  the  relative  amounts  of  fertilizer  con- 
stituents in  1,000  pounds  of  American  feeding  stuffs. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 
DIRECTIONS 

From  the  table  in  the  appendix  draw  diagrams 
showing  the  relative  amounts  of  fertilizer  constit- 
uents in  1,000  pounds  of  feeding  stuffs. 

Example: 

FERTILIZER    CONSTITUENTS    -IN     IjOOO    POUNDS     OF    CORN 

Nitrogen  18.2   Ibs. 

Phosphoric  acid 7.0 

Potash    4-0    " 

DIAGRAM  SHOWING  FERTILIZER  CONSTITUENTS 
IN   CORN 


Nitrogen,  18.2  pounds 


Phosphoric  acid, 
7  pounds 


Potash, 
4  pounds 


EXERCISE  110 

FEEDING  HAY  TO  HORSES 
TIME:  SPRING  OR  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  determine  whether  the  farmer  commonly 
feeds  too  much  hay  to  his  horses. 

Material  needed:  Two  horses  at  home,  hay,  grain. 

DIRECTIONS 

For  this  exercise  have  pupils  use  two  horses 
at  their  homes.  Keep  in  separate  stalls  and  feed 
one  horse  all  the  hay  he  will  eat.  Considerably  re- 
duce the  amount  of  hay  given  to  the  second  horse, 
but  feed  each  horse  the  usual  grain  ration. 

Keep  this  up  for  several  days  and  see  if  the  horse 
which  has  been  given  a  smaller  amount  of  hay  does 
not  have  as  much  flesh,  appear  livelier,  and  travel 
better  than  the  other  one. 

Horses  when  given  large  quantities  of  hay  are 
apt  to  have  the  heaves. 


EXERCISE  111 

CALCULATING  RATIONS  FOR  ANIMALS 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  balance  rations  so  as  to  keep 
the  animal  in  good  condition  and  to  practice  economy 
in  feeding. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

Explanations. — Feeding  stuffs  contain  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat.  The  percentages  of  these 
ingredients  are  found  in  Table  V.  of  the  Appendix. 
By  the  nutritive  ratio  is  meant  the  proportion  of 
protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  combined.  The  fol- 
lowing formula  shows  the  method  of  obtaining  the 
nutritive  ratio: 

(Fat  X  2.4)  -f-  carbohydrates 


Protein 


•=  nutritive  ratio 


In  calculating  the  ratio,  we  multiply  the  fat  by 
2.4;  for  the  fat  is  nearly  2^2  times  as  valuable  for 
food  as  the  carbohydrates. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let  us  find  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  following 
ration : 

Clover  hay 15  pounds 

Oats 6  pounds 

Cotton-seed  meal 3  pounds 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  183 

Multiply  each  ingredient  by  the  per  cent,  of  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates  and  fat. 


Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

15  X 

7.6  = 

I. 

140 

15 

X 

38.4  = 

5.760 

15 

X 

2.O  = 

.30 

6X 

9.2  = 

552 

6 

X 

47-3  = 

2.838 

6 

X 

4.2  = 

.252 

3X 

38.1  = 

I. 

143 

3 

X 

16     = 

.480 

3 

X 

12.6  = 

.378 

2. 

835 

9.078 

.930 

2.232 

11.310         .93  X  2.4  =  2.232 
11.310  •+•  2.835  =  3.9        Nutritive  ratio     i  :  3.9 


EXERCISE  112 


CALCULATING  RATIONS  FOR  ANIMALS  (Continued) 


TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  balance  rations  for  different 
animals  under  different  conditions. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  your  own  feeds  and  balance  rations  for  the 
animals  mentioned  in  the  table  below.  The  number 
of  pounds  of  dry  matter  and  the  nutritive  ratios  are 
given  in  the  same  table. 

POUNDS    OP    FOOD    REQUIRED   A  DAY   FOR    I,OOO  POUNDS  LIVE 
WEIGHT 


Kind  of  Animal 

Total  Dry  Matter 

Nutritive  Ratio 

8 
5 

8 
8 

0 

9 

2 

6 
I» 

12 

7 
6 

5-5 
8 
6 
7 
6 
6 

EXERCISE  113 

FEED  AFFECTING  THE  FLAVOR  OF  MILK 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  how  feeding  stuffs  affect  the  flavor 
of  milk. 
Material  needed:  Rape,  cow,  milk. 

DIRECTIONS 

Ask  some  student,  on  whose  father's  farm  rape  is 
grown,  to  feed  one  of  the  milch  cows  some  rape  in 
the  afternoon,  and  to  save  a  small  amount  of  milk 
at  milking  time.  Carry  the  milk  to  school  and  see 
whether  the  students  can  detect  any  change  in  the 
flavor  due  to  the  rape. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  other  substances  that  produce  bad 
flavors  in  milk. 

2.  Is  milk  a  direct  product  of  food  or  the  blood? 

3.  At  what  time  does  grass  most  affect  the  flavor 
of  milk? 


EXERCISE  114 

SOURING  OF  MILK 
TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:    To  find  a  means  of  preventing  the  souring  of 
milk. 

Material  needed:  Several  small  milk  bottles,  milk,  ther- 
mometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Clean  several  small  bottles  and  dry  them  in  the 
sun.     Fill  the  bottles  with  fresh  milk  and  divide 
into  three  lots.    Stopper  well  so  as  to  exclude  the  air. 

2.  Boil  one  lot  for  a  few  minutes.     This  boiling 
should  kill  nearly  all  the  bacteria. 

3.  Pasteurize  the  second  lot,  i.e.,  place  the  bottles 
of  milk  in  water  which  has  been  heated  to  155°  F. 
Leave  20  minutes  and  set  aside  to  cool.    Leave  the 
third  lot  untreated. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  long  does  the  milk  keep  sweet  in  each  lot? 

2.  Does  boiling  or  pasteurizing  alter  the  flavor  of 
milk? 


EXERCISE  115 

A  TEST   FOR   FORMALIN   IN   MILK 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:     To  determine  whether  milk  has  been  treated 
with  formalin. 
Material  needed:  Milk,  formalin,  sulphuric  acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

Pour  a  small  amount  of  formalin  into  a  glass  of 
milk  and  stir.  Next  pour  sulphuric  acid  into  the 
milk,  letting  it  run  down  the  side  of  the  glass.  Do 
the  same  with  some  milk  which  has  no  formalin 
in  it.  A  purple  color  at  the  junction  of  the  milk  and 
acid  indicates  the  presence  of  formalin.  Persons  liv- 
ing in  the  city  should  occasionally  test  their  milk 
for  formalin,  as  many  milkmen  use  it  to  prevent  their 
milk  from  souring.  Pasteurizing  is  legitimate,  but 
the  use  of  formalin  should  be  condemned.  Milk 
treated  with  formalin  is  very  harmful  to  infants. 


EXERCISE  116 

TEMPERATURE  FOR  CHURNING  BUTTER 
TIME:  DURING  WARM   WEATHER 

Object:  To  determine  whether  a  high  or  a  low  tempera- 
ture is  better  for  churning  butter. 

Material  needed:  Milk  ready  for  churning,  churn,  hot 
water,  cold  water,  thermometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

Have  older  pupils  at  whose  homes  large  quanti- 
ties of  butter  are  made  divide  the  cream  into  two 
parts.  Churn  one  lot  at  about  58°  or  60°,  and  the 
other  at,  say,  80°  to  85°.  With  the  aid  of  a  ther- 
mometer the  temperature  can  be  regulated  by  hot 
and  cold  water.  When  the  two  lots  have  been 
churned,  note  any  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
the  butter. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  lot  was  longer  in  churning? 

2.  What  difference  do  you  notice  in  the  granular 
structure  ? 

3.  Why  is  cream  usually  kept  in  a  warm  place  be- 
fore churning? 


EXERCISE  117 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  THE  BABCOCK  TEST 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  learn  the  method  of  testing  milk  for  butter 
fat  by  the  use  of  the  Babcock  test. 

Material    needed:    Babcock    tester    with    equipment, 
samples  of  milk. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Ask  students  and  patrons  for  funds  to  purchase 
a  Babcock  tester  for  the  school.    One  can  be  bought 

for  $5. 

2.  Let  students  bring 
fresh     milk     from     their 
homes  to  be  tested.  Sam- 
ples    should     be     taken 
while    the    milk    is    still 

tT  warm  after  it  has  been 

thoroughly  mixed. 

3.  When  the  milk  has 
been   well   mixed   meas- 
ure  out   with   a  pipette 
17.5    cubic    centimeters 
and  put  into  the  bottles. 
Blow  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  pipette   to  expel 


FIG.  48 — BOTTLE  AND  MEASURE 


all  the  milk. 
4.  Measure 


out      an 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

equal  amount  of  acid  for  each  bottle,  holding  the 
bottle  slantingly ;  let  the  acid  run  down  the  side 
of  the  bottle  so  as  not  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
milk  too  suddenly,  lest  the  milk  be  acted  upon  un- 
evenly. Gently  shake  the  bottles  in  the  hands  until 
the  acid  and  milk  are  thoroughly  mixed.  The  mix- 
ture will  become  hot  and  change  to  a  dark  brown. 
Care  must  be  taken  in  handling  the  acid  so  as  not 
to  get  any  on  the  skin  or  clothing:  drop  a  little  on 
a  rag  and  find  out  why. 

5.  Place  an  even  number  of  bottles  in  the  ma- 
chine, replace  the  cover,  and  rotate  about  700  to 
1,200  revolutions  a  minute  for  six  or  seven  minutes. 

6.  Add  enough  hot  water  to  bring  the  mixture  up 
to  the  bottom  of  the  neck ;  place  the  bottles  back  in 
the   machine  and   rotate   again   for  three   minutes. 
Now  add  more  hot  water  and  bring  the  fat  up  in 
the  neck  where  it  can  be  measured.     Suppose  the 
bottom  of  the  fat  column  stands  at  the  figure  2  and 
the  top  at  the  figure  6,  this  would  show  4  per  cent, 
of  fat.     Each  per  cent,  means  one  pound  of  butter 
fat  in  100  pounds  of  milk. 


EXERCISE  118 

DECAY  IN  APPLES 
TIME:  WHENEVER  APPLES  ARE  OBTAINABLE 

Object:  To  show  that  apples  should  not  be  shaken 
from  the  tree  if  they  are  to  be  kept. 

Material  needed:  Three  ripe  apples. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select  three  apples  of  the  same  variety  and  of  the 
same  degree  of  ripeness.  Strike  one  against  an  ob- 
ject so  as  to  bruise  one  side  without  breaking  the 
skin;  strike  another  so  that  the  skin  is  just  broken, 
and  leave  the  third  uninjured.  Place  the  three 
apples  somewhere  in  the  room  where  they  will  not 
be  disturbed,  and  examine  from  time  to  time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  decays  first? 

2.  What  is  the  function  of  the  skin  of  an  apple? 
Select  two  apples  of  very  nearly  the  same  size; 

peel  one  and  weigh  both.     After  24  hours  weigh 
again. 

3.  Which  has  lost  the  most  in  weight?    Why? 


EXERCISE  119 

DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  APPLES 


TIME:  FALL  TERM 


Object:    To  learn  to  classify  apples  according  to  form. 
Material  needed:  Apples  of  various  forms. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  well  the  forms  of  apples  as  given  in  Fig.  57. 
Practice    drawing   these    forms    until   you    become 


FIG.    49 — FORMS   OF   APPLES 

X,  oblate;  B,  conical;  C,  ovate;  Z>,  obovate ;  £^  oblong;  f\  acute;  G, 
round-ovate;  //.oblate-conical,  i,  stem  or  stalk  ;  a,  cavity ;  3,  calyx  ;  4,  basin; 
5,  core  ;  6,  axis. 

familiar    with    them.      Make    a    collection    of    dif- 
ferent varieties  of  apples ;  let  the  class  learn  all  the 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


193 


varieties  collected,  and  classify  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


Name  of  Variety 

Form 

EXERCISE  120 

JUDGING  APPLES 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  judge  apples  by  use  of  the 
score  card. 

Material  needed:  Apples,  pencil,  score  card. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let  four  or  more  students  each  bring  a  plate  of 
apples  from  the  home  orchard ;  set  before  the  class 
and  let  each  student  score  the  number  of  points  for 
each  entry  and  compare  with  the  teacher's  score. 

SCORE  CARD   FOR  JUDGING  APPLES 
Owner  of  Exhibit  .  Date.. 


Points  Noted 

Maximum 
Score 

Teacher's 
Score 

Student's 
Score 

Remarks 

Color  

15 

Form  

Quality  

Freedom  from  blemishes 

20 

Total  

Name  of  J  udge 

When  single  plates  are  judged,  the  first  score  may  be  omitted. 


EXERCISE  121 

THINNING  FRUIT 

TIME:  WHEN  APPLES  AND  PEARS  ARE  ABOUT  THE  SIZE  OF  A  SMALL 
CRAB;  PEACHES  AND  PLUMS  AFTER  THE  "JUNE  DROP"  is 

OVER,   AND   DANGER   FROM    THE   DEPREDATION   OF 
THE  CURCULIO   IS    PAST 

Object:    To  determine  whether  it  pays  to  thin  fruit. 

Material  needed:  Heavily  loaded  apple  tree  in  home 
orchard. 

DIRECTIONS 

In  the  home  orchard  select  a  tree  heavily  loaded 
with  fruit.  On  either  the  east  or  the  west  side  thin 
the  fruit  on  one  half  of  the  tree,  and  leave  the  other 
half  unthinned.  Apples,  pears,  and  peaches  should 
be  thinned  to  6  or  8  inches ;  plums  to  2  or  3  inches 
apart.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  compare  the  treated 
and  untreated  parts  of  the  tree  with  reference  to: 
total  amount  of  fruit,  number  of  broken  limbs,  color 
and  size  of  fruit,  and  freeness  from  disease. 

SUMMARY  OF  BENEFITS  DERIVED  FROM 
THINNING   FRUIT 

1.  Lessens  the  production  of  seed,  thus  preserv- 
ing the  vitality  of  the  tree. 

2.  Causes  the  tree  to  bear  crops  more  regularly. 
Few  fruit  trees  can  produce  large  crops  and  bear 
fruit  buds  at  the  same  time. 


196  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

3.  Will  produce  larger  fruit. 

4.  Will   produce   better  colored   fruit  by   letting 
more  sunlight  into  the  tree. 

5.  Preserves  the  shape  of  the  tree  by  preventing 
the  breaking  of  overloaded  branches,  and  lessens 
the  loss  occasioned  by  rot  and  other  fungous  dis- 
eases  by  eliminating   the   danger   of   infection   by 
contact. 


EXERCISE  122 

PROPAGATION    OF    RED   AND   BLACK   RASP- 
BERRIES 

TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  show  that  the  red  and  the  black  raspberry 
are  unlike  in  their  methods  of  propagation,  and  that  the 
red  spreads  more  rapidly  than  the  black. 

Material  needed:  Red  and  black  raspberry  plants. 

DIRECTIONS 

Go  to  a  garden  or  field  in  which  both  varieties  are 
grown.  You  will  notice  that  the  canes  of  the  black 
raspberries  bend  over  and  the  tips  take  root  in  the 
ground.  This  is  tip-rooting,  or  what  some  bota- 
nists call  a  stolon.  If  these  are  difficult  to  find,  let 
some  of  the  pupils  cover  the  tips  of  some  canes  with 
soil  and  let  them  take  root. 

Notice  that  the  red  raspberry,  instead  of  produc- 
ing tip  roots,  sends  up  canes  at  intervals  from  roots 
under  the  ground.  In  this  way  a  single  plant  in  a  few 
seasons  will  cover  a  considerable  space  of  ground. 
If  left  undisturbed,  the  red  raspberry  will  spend 
most  of  its  time  in  producing  new  plants  instead  of 
fruit,  but  this  can  be  prevented  by  cutting  off  all  the 
new  shoots  except  two  or  three  for  the  next  year's 
growth. 

Are  there  any  varieties  growing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood that  differ  in  any  way  from  the  ones  men- 
tioned? If  so,  explain  how  you  think  they  have  been 
produced. 


EXERCISE  123 

GRAFTING  WAX 
TIME:  EARLY  SPRING 

Object:    To  learn  how  to  make  grafting  wax. 
Material  needed:  Scales,  tallozv,  beeswax,  resin. 

DIRECTIONS 

Weigh  out  the  following  ingredients: 
Tallow,  i  part. 
Beeswax,  2  parts. 
Resin,  4  parts. 

Melt  the  tallow  and  beeswax,  add  the  finely 
broken  resin,  and  stir  till  a  uniform  mixture  results. 
Then  pour  into  cold  water,  but  before  the  stuff  hard- 
ens pull  it  like  taffy.  The  hands  must  be  well 
greased  to  prevent  sticking.  When  a  good  "grain," 
as  in  pulled  taffy,  has  been  produced  and  when  the 
wax  becomes  tough,  mold  it  into  balls  or  sticks  for 
use. 


EXERCISE  124 

CLEFT  GRAFTING 
TIME:  BEFORE  BUDS  BEGIN  TO  SWELL  IN  THE  SPRING 

Object:     To  change  the  variety  by  top-grafting. 
Material  needed:  Apple  tree,  grafting  knife,  grafting 
wax. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Select  a  branch  I  or  il/2  inches  in  diameter  and 
saw  off  the  branch,  using  care  so  the  bark  may  not 

be  loosened  from  any 
part  of  the  stub.  Split 
the  end  of  the  stub  with 
a  broad,  thin  chisel  or 
FIG.  SO-GRAFTING  TOOL  grafting  tool. 

2.  Prepare  the  scion,  or  part  to  be  inserted,  by 
taking  cuttings  from  the  variety  you  desire  to  prop- 
agate, using  the  previous  year's  growth.     Let  the 
scions  be  long  enough  to  contain  two  or  three  buds. 
Now  cut  the  lower  end  of  the  scion  wedge-shaped, 
leaving  the  outer  edge  thicker  than  the  other. 

3.  Insert  the  scions  in  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  being 
sure  that  the  cambium  layer  or  growing  portion  of 
stock  and  of  the  scion  come  in  contact.     To  insure 
proper  connection  of  the  growing  tissues  set  the 
scion  at  a  slight  angle  with  the  stock.    It  is  a  good 
plan  to  cut  the  scion  so  the  lower  bud  will  come 
just  at  the  top  of  the  stub. 


200 


RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


4.  When  the  scions  have  been  placed,  cover  all 
the  cut  portions  with  grafting  wax. 

Facts. — This  method  is  popularly  employed  upon 


FIG.  SI — CLEFT  GRAFTING 
A,  prepared  scion  ;  B,  scions  in  place  ;  C,  graft  waxed  over. 

old  trees  of  apple  and  pear,  and  is  the  most  feasible 
way  of  top-working  an  old  tree  to  a  new  variety. 
Not  more  than  one-third  of  the  tree  should  be  so 
treated  in  any  one  year,  because  of  the  tendency  to 
produce  water  sprouts  when  much  wood  is  cut  off. 


EXERCISE  125 


WHIP  GRAFTING 
TIME:  DURING  THE  WINTER  MONTHS 

Object:    To  show  how  to  produce  new  apple  trees  by 
means  of  whip  grafting. 

Material  needed:  Knife,  apple  roots,  apple  scions,  graft' 
ing  twine. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  This  method  of  grafting  is  done  by  grafting 
scions  on  roots  and  can  be  done  indoors.     With  a 
sharp  knife  make  a  diagonal  cut  at  one  end  of  the 
stock,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52,  a.     Let  the  cut  surface 
be  about  i  inch  long.     Next  place  the  knife  about 
one-third  the  distance  from  the  end  of  the  cut  sur- 
face and  split  the  stock  in  the  direction  of  the  longer 
axis.    This  split  should  be  a  little  over  y2  inch  long. 

2.  Prepare  the  lower  end  of  the  scion  in  like  man- 
ner (Fig.  52,  &).    A  small  difference  in  the  diameter 
of  stock  and  scion  may  be  disregarded. 

3.  Force  the  two  parts  together  as  shown  in  Fig. 
52,  c.     If  the  cut  surface  on  both  stock  and  scion 
is  straight  the  two  parts  will  fit  neatly.    The  cam- 
bium layer  must  come  in  contact  on  one  side  at 
least. 

4.  Wrap  the  united  stock  and  scion  with  five  or 
six  turns  of  waxed  yarn,  prepared  by  soaking  a  bal! 
of  loosely  wound  yarn  in  melted  grafting  wax. 


2O2 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


Facts. — Sometimes  the  entire  root  is  used  in  this 
method,  but  usually  the  roots  are  cut  into  pieces 
from  4  to  6  inches  long.  Roots  are  dug  and  scions 


FIG.    52 — WHIP   GRAFTS 
a,  stock ;  3,  scion  ;  c,  completed  graft. 

The  drawing  at  the  left  shows  two  stems  about  to  be  united  ;   those  at  the 
middle  and  right  the  grafting  of  a  stem  on  a  root. 

cut  in  autumn  and  stored.  When  the  operation  is 
complete,  the  grafted  stock  is  labeled  and  stored  in 
moss,  sawdust,  or  sand  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring, 
when  it  is  set  in  the  ground  deep  enough  to  bring 
the  union  of  stock  and  scion  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 
This  method  is  very  popular  in  Northern  nurseries 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  2O3 

for  propagating  young  apple  and  pear  trees,  the 
former  upon  roots  of  seedling  apples,  grown  for  the 
purpose  in  Missouri  and  other  Western  states,  and 
the  latter  upon  pear  seedlings  mostly  imported  from 
France. 


EXERCISE  126 

BUDDING 

TIME:  JUNE  TO  EARLY  SEPTEMBER 
Object:    To  show  how  budding  is  done. 

Material  needed:  Young  peach  Wees,  knife,  raffia  or 
yarn. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  To  learn  how  to  bud,  practice  on  stems  from 
5'8  to  }/-2.  inch  in  diameter.     Make  a  T-shaped  cut 
through  the  bark,  as  shown  in  Fig.  53,  C.  Let  the  per- 
pendicular slit  be  about  1*2  inches  long  and  the  hor- 
izontal slit  only  about  YZ  inch. 

2.  From  a  branch  of  the  same  season's  growth 
and  of  a  known  variety  remove  a  strong,  healthy 
bud  (Fig.  53,  A).    Start  the  knife  y2  inch  below  the 
bud  and  cut  upward  under  this  bud,  coming  out 
about  the  same  distance  above  it.     Cut  only  deep 
enough  into  the  wood  so  as  not  to  injure  the  bud. 
Avoid  too  much  wood  under  the  bud. 

3.  Now  place  the  bud,  B,  in  the  slit  already  made 
and  push  downward,  until  the  bud  is  securely  in 
place,  as  shown  in  D,  Fig.  53. 

4.  The  bud  should  now  be  tied,  as  shown  at  E, 
until  a  union  is  formed.    Tie  tightly  with  bands  of 
raffia  or  yarn.     As  soon  as  the  buds  have  united 
with  the  stock  the  material  used  in  tying  should  be 
cut  to  prevent  girdling  the  stock. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


Facts. —  Peaches  are  usually  grafted  in  June,  in 
the  second  year's  growth ;  sometimes  in  the  present 
year's  growth,  if  done  late  in  the  season.  The  buds 


FIG.   53 — COMMON    BUDDING 

A,  method  of  cutting  the  bud  ;  B,  bud  cut  ;  C,  method  of  preparing  the  stock  ; 
D,  bud  inserted  ;  E,  bud  tied  in  place. 

are  placed  near  the  ground  in  stocks,  about  the  size 
of  a  chalk  crayon.  All  the  trees  in  which  the  buds 
have  "taken"  must  have  the  tops  cut  off  the  follow- 
ing spring.  A  slanting  cut  is  made  just  above  the 
inserted  bud. 


EXERCISE  127 

HARD-WOOD  CUTTINGS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:    To  show  the  method  of  propagating  the  grape 
and  currant. 

Material  needed:  Knife,  young  canes  of  grape. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Simple  cuttings. — Cut  off  a  portion  of  the  cane 
of  a  grape  vine,  so  as  to  have  two  or  more  buds.    As 
roots  develop  most  readily  near  the  joints,  let  the 
lower  end  be  cut  just  below  a  bud.    At  the  top  the 
cut  should  be  made  some  distance  from  the  highest 
bud. 

2.  Heel  cuttings. — Cut  off  a  branch  by  cutting 
deep  enough  so  as  to  remove  a  part  of  the  parent 
branch.    This  severed  portion  of  the  parent  branch 
is  the  so-called  heel.    Heel  cuttings  are  more  likely 
to  develop  roots  than  simple  cuttings  are,  but  only 
one  cutting  can  be  made  from  each  lateral  branch. 

3.  Mallet  cuttings. — Sever  a  lateral  branch  with  a 
portion  of  the  parent  branch,  thus  leaving  a  section 
of  the  parent  branch  on  the  base  of  the  cutting. 
This  method  has  the  same  advantage  and  disadvan- 
tage as  the  heel  cutting. 

4.  Single-eye  cuttings. — Cut  the  lateral  branches 
into  pieces  having  only  one  bud.     This  method  is 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


207 


used  when  it  is  desirable  to  make  a  large  number  of 
cuttings  with  a  limited  supply  of  material.  Single- 
eye  cuttings  are  commonly  started  under  glass  with 


FIG.    54 — CUTTINGS 

a,  simple  cutting  of  currant*   I,  mallet  cutting  of  grape ;    c,  root  cutting  of 
blackberry  ;    J,  single-eye  grape  cutting. 

bottom  heat:  sometimes  in  hotbeds.  The  bud  is 
placed  about  I  inch  under  the  surface  of  the  soil 
and  kept  moist.  The  cutting  may  be  set  either  per- 
pendicularly or  horizontally  with  the  bud  up. 

Cuttings  may  be  kept  over  winter  in  a  cool  cel- 
lar, buried  in  sand,  sawdust,  or  moss. 


TIME:  FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:  To  learn  how  to  prepare  and  transplant  trees 
properly. 

Material  needed:  Spade,  knife,  saw. 

DIRECTIONS 

The  first  work  should  be  done  in  the  presence  of 
the  whole  class.  It  should  be  divided  as  follows: 
Digging  up  the  tree,  pruning,  digging  the  hole,  and 
setting  the  tree  out.  Let  one  student  each  be  as- 
signed to  the  divisions  of  work  mentioned  above. 
When  the  first  tree  has  been  planted,  read  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  transplanting,  and  let  the  class 
judge  as  to  whether  any  of  the  rules  have  been  vio- 
lated. 

RULES  FOR  TRANSPLANTING* 

1.  Trees   and   shrubs   that  drop   their  leaves   in 
autumn   should   be   transplanted   only   while   their 
leaves  are  off. 

2.  Take  up  the  plant  with  the  least  possible  harm 
to  the  roots. 

3.  Trim   off  broken   and   mangled   roots   with   a 
sharp  knife  before  replanting. 

4.  Cut  off  some  of  the  branches  before  replanting. 

*From  Gofi  and  May  ne's   Agriculturt. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  2OO, 

5.  Make   the   hole  large   enough   to   receive   the 
roots  easily. 

6.  Dip  the  roots  in  water  before  replanting. 

7.  Pack  the  moist  soil  closely  about  the  roots. 

8.  If  the  soil  is  rather  dry,  add  a  pailful  of  water 
after  putting  the  soil  about  the  roots  and  before 
putting  in  all  the  dirt.    If  there  are  sods,  put  them 
on  grass  side  down. 

9.  Mulch   the  soil  about  the   trees  or  shrub,   if 
the  climate  is  subject  to  drouth  in  the  spring. 


PRUNING 

TIME:  APRIL  AND  MAY 


Object:  To  show  where  to  cut  off  a  branch  in  pruning 
a  tree. 

Material  needed:  Orchard. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Study  the  manner  of  healing  over  of  wounds 
made  by  pruning  a  tree.  Describe  the  kind  of 
wound  which  seems  to  heal  most  readily.  From 
observations  do  you  think  it  better  to  remove  the 
branch  by  making  the  cut  near  the  main  stem  or  a 
little  wav  from  it? 


a 


FIG.   55 — RESULTS  OF    (a)    INCORRECT  PRUNING;    (b)    CORRECT 
PRUNING 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


211 


2.  Observe  whether  the  branches  have  been  re- 
moved with  a  saw  or  an1  axe.  Which  of  the  two 
implements  would  you  use  in  pruning?  Why? 


FIG.  56 — DIAGRAM   SHOWING   RESULTS  OF  INCORRECT  PRUNING 
(i,  before  stub  decays  ;  b,  after. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Suppose  you  wish  to  remove  a  large  limb  from 
a  tree,  how  can  it  be  done  without  splitting  down 
as  it  falls? 

2.  Why    is    pruning    usually    done    early    in    the 
spring? 

3.  Why  should  large  wounds  be  painted  over  with 
white  lead? 


212 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


(/I      tXQ 

<u    vT 
c    o 


3 
w     o 


~D    j- 
5     O 


a. a 

1/5   B 
*°   9. 


EXERCISE  130 

MAP  OF  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:  To  make  a  map  of  the  home  grounds,  and  find 
in  whose  home  an  effort  is  made  to  make  the  surround- 
ings attractive. 

Material  needed:  Paper  and  pencil. 

NOTE. — Fig.  58  shows  a  school  as  it  was  before  being  im- 
proved ;  Fig.  59  shows  improvements  gained  by  planting  shrubs 
and  removing  fences ;  and  Fig.  60  shows  a  ground  plan  of 


FIG.  58 — SCHOOL  GROUNDS  BEFORE   IMPROVEMENT 


214 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


FIG.    59 — SCHOOL   GROUNDS    AFTER   IMPROVEMENT 

the  place  after  planting.    This  last  will  serve  as  a  model  for 
making  a  similar  map  of  the  home  grounds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Use  Fig.  60  as  a  model  and  draw  a  map  of 
your  home.     Locate  all  the  buildings,  fences,  paths, 
trees,  flower  beds,  etc. 

2.  After  having  drawn  the  map,  write  a  complete 
description  and  attach  it. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers 
in  the  home  grounds.     Ask  other  members  of  the 
family  to  assist,  if  you  have  any  difficulty  in  naming 
them. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Should  boys  assist  in  beautifying  the  grounds 
at  borne  ? 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


215 


2.  Why  do  you  usually  see  prettier  grounds  in 
the  city  than  in  the  country? 

3.  Is  there  a  good  lawn  at  your  home? 

4.  What  kind  of  grass  makes  the  best  lawn? 


FIG.  60 — PLAN  OF  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


EXERCISE  131 

ORDERS  OF  INSECTS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:  To  become  familiar  with  the  different  orders  of 
insects. 

'Material  needed:  Note-book  and  pencil. 

NOTE. — Insects  are  distinguished  from  other  animals  by  the 
three  parts  of  the  body :  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen ;  three 
pairs  of  jointed  legs,  and  generally  two  pairs  of  wings.  A 
few  are  wingless. 

Mature  insects  have  a  more  or  less  hardened  skin,  to  which 
the  muscles  are  attached.  The  eyes  are  compound,  being  com- 
posed of  a  very  large  number  of  hexagonal  corneae,  from  50  in 
the  ant  to  many  thousand  in  the  winged  insects.  The  mouths 
are  adapted  for  either  sucking  or  biting.  There  are  four  meta- 
morphoses, or  periods  of  growth :  egg,  larvae,  pupa,  and  adult. 
When  all  four  are  passed  through  by  an  insect  the  metamor- 
phoses are  said  to  be  complete ;  if  only  three,  incomplete. 
Growth  takes  place  only  during  the  larval  period.  The  length 
of  life  of  an  adult  ranges  from  a  few  hours  to  several  years. 
The  larvae  are  hatched  from  eggs  or,  in  a  few  cases,  born  alive. 
There  are  more  than  250,000  species,  grouped  in  orders,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal: 

Order  i.  Orthoptera. — Wings,  four,  front  pair  slightly 
thickened,  hind  pair  transparent,  broad  and  folded ;  hind  legs 
usually  large  and  fitted  for  leaping;  land  insects,  biting  mouths. 
Examples :  Crickets,  locusts,  and  grasshoppers. 

Order  2.     Neuroptera. — Bodies   long  and  slender;    wings, 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


217 


four,  large,  transparent;  mouths  adapted  for  biting.     Exam- 
ples: Dragon  flies,  May  flies,  and  caddis  flies. 

Order  3.  Hemiptera,  or  true  bugs. — 
Mouths  adapted  to  sucking;  body  flat; 
legs  slender;  wings,  four,  but  some- 
times wanting;  some  feed  on  juices  of 
animals,  others  on  juices  of  plants.  Ex- 
amples: Bedbug,  louse,  water  strider, 
seventeen-year  locust,  and  plant  louse 
(aphis). 

Order  4.  Diptera,  or  flies.  —  One 
available  pair  of  wings,  some  species 
wingless ;  eyes  large ;  mouth  of  some, 
INSIDIOUS  FLOWER-BUG  as  the  fly,  enabled  to  lick  up  its  food, 
of  others,  like  the  mosquito,  fitted  for  piercing ;  legs  slender ; 
larvae,  footless  grubs.  Examples :  Mosquito,  Hessian  fly,  daddy 
longlegs,  flea,  house  fly,  and  bot  fly. 

Order  5.  Lcpidoptera,  or  butterflies  and  moths. — Wings, 
four,  large,  covered  with  minute,  overlapping  scales ;  head 
small ;  body  cylindrical ;  legs  of  little  use  for  locomotion ; 


FIG.  6 1 


FIG.  62 — A  CUTWORM,   PUPA  AND   MOTH 

mouth  fashioned   into  a  long  proboscis ;   larvae  called  cater- 
pillars or  worms;   butterflies   fly  during   the  day,   moths   at 


2l8  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

night ;  wings  of  butterflies  raised  vertically  when  at  rest,  moths 
horizontally. 

Order  6.  Coleoptera,  or  beetles. — Recognized  by  the  thick- 
ened, horny  fore  wings ;  strong  legs  make  some  of  them 
powerful  runners ;  larvae  wonnlike,  pupa  motionless ;  mandi- 
bles well  developed ;  biters.  Examples :  June  bug,  ground 
beetles,  click  beetles,  and  grain  weevils. 

Order  7.  Hymenoptera. — Ex- 
cept the  silkworm,  the  most 
useful  of  the  insects.  Mouth 
fitted  for  biting  and  lopping; 
four  transparent  wings ;  fe- 
males of  many  species  provided 
with  stingers ;  larvae,  footless, 
helpless  grubs.  Examples: 
Bees,  ichneumon  flies,  and  gall 

FIG.   63 — BALD-FACED   HORNET       ^les- 

DIRECTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  insects  not  mentioned  above,  and 
classify  them  according  to  the  order  in  which  they 
belong. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  insects  are  most  injurious  to  farm  crops? 

2.  Which  usually  do  the  greatest  damage,  sucking 
or  biting  insects? 

3.  How  do  you  distinguish  a  moth  from  a  butter- 
fly ;  a  beetle  from  a  bug? 

4.  Is  the  caterpillar  a  worm? 


EXERCISE  132 

PREPARATION  FOR  COLLECTING  INSECTS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:    To  learn  how  to  construct  an  insect  net  and 
prepare  cyanide  bottle. 

Material  needed:  Wooden  handle  four  feet  long,  two 
and  one-half  feet  of  No.  8  wire,  piece  of  small  broom 
wire,  one  yard  of  mosquito  netting,  needle  and  thread, 
wide-mouthed  bottle  (one-half  pint),  one-half  ounce  of 
potassium  cyanide,  poison  label,  handful  of  plaster  of 
Paris. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Insect  Net.     Bend  the  heavy  wire  in  a  circle 
and   cross  the  ends,  bending  them   parallel.     Let 


FIG.  64 — INSECT   NET 

these  parallel  parts  be  6  inches  long.    Cut  a  groove 
in  the  end  of  the  handle  on  opposite  sides  and  ex- 


220 


RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


tending  8  inches  from  the  end.  Place  the  cross  ends 
of  the  wire  in  the  grooves  and  wrap  them  securely 
with  the  small  wire.  Make  a  bag  of  the 
netting,  30  inches  long,  with  the  di- 
ameter the  same  as  the  wire  circle. 
Sew  the  bag  to  the  wire  circle. 

2.  Cyanide  Bottle.  Break  the  cy- 
anide* into  small  pieces,  avoid  its 
poisonous  fumes,  and  place  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a  wide-mouthed  bottle.  Pour 
over  the  pieces  just  enough  water  to 
cover  them.  Add  plaster  of  Paris  to 
absorb  all  the  water.  Leave  the  bot- 
KILLING  BOTTLE  ^Q  unstoppered  until  the  material 
within  is  dry,  then  cork  it  tightly.  Affix  the  poison 
label  and  keep  the  bottle  out  of  the  way  of  children. 
If  preferred,  the  cyanide  can  be  covered  with  saw- 
dust pressed  down  firmly  and  covered  with  a  double 
thickness  of  blotting  paper. 

*Bcar  in  mind  that  potassium  cyanidt  is  ono  of  t*e  most  deadl)  oc'sons  known. 
It  looks  like  lump  sugar  and  must  be  handled  "•>-!  g«-e;xt  care.  A  ,~»ece  the  size 
of  a  pin's  head  in  one's  mouth  would  cause  death 


EXERCISE  133 

COLLECTION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  INSECTS 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:    To  collect  insects  and  preserve  them. 
Material  needed:  Insect  net,  bottle,  insect  box,  labels. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.  Go  into  the  field  and  collect  as  many  kinds  of 
insects  as  you  can  find.  Make  notes  on  everything 
you  may  notice  in  connection  with  the  life  of  the  in- 
sects, their  haunts,  associates, 
food,  shelter,  natural  enemies, 
etc.  Observe  the  following  rules 
in  collecting: 

1.  Avoid  noise  and  haste ;  wear 
quiet  colors  and  keep  your  eyes 
open. 

2.  Do  not  allow  insects  to  die 
a   lingering   death.       Keep    live 
specimens    supplied    with    food, 
water,  and  fresh  air. 

3.  Avoid  the  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  life  by  collecting  no  more 
specimens  than  will  be  used. 

2.  After  returning  from  col- 
lecting, remove  the  insects  from 
the  bottle  and  mount  them.  A 
cigar  box  will  answer  for  this 
purpose.  The  bottom  should  be 
covered  with  cork,  corrugated 
PaPer  such  as  is  used  for  packing, 


222  RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

or  even  sections  of  dry  corn-stalks.  Run  a 
pin  through  the  thorax  of  most  insects  and  mount 
as  shown  in  Fig.  67.  In  mounting  beetles  let 
the  pin  pass  through  the  right  wing  cover  near 
its  upper  end,  and  in  mounting  true  bugs  have  it 
pass  through  the  triangular-shaped  plate  near  the 


FIG.  67 — CORRECT  METHODS  OF  PINNING  VARIOUS  INSECTS 

center  of  the  back.  Butterflies  and  moths  should  be 
kept  on  a  spreading  board  a  short  time  or  until 
thoroughly  dry.  The  spreading  board  consists  of 
two  thin  pieces  of  boards  placed  almost  together, 
leaving  a  groove  just  large  enough  to  receive  the 
body  of  the  butterfly.  Press  down  wings  and  fasten 
the  wings  with  narrow  strips  of  paper,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  66. 


EXERCISE  134 

THE  GRASSHOPPER  (ORDER  Orthoptera) 
TIME:  SUMMER  OR  FALL 

Object:     To  study  the  form  and  habits  of  the  grass- 
hopper. 

Material  needed:  Grasshoppers,  living  and  dead,  note- 
book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Make  the  following  observations  in  the  field: 

1.  Its  hours  of  activity. 

2.  Its  several  methods  of  locomotion. 

3.  Its  protective  coloring. 

4.  Its  natural  enemies. 

5.  The   sounds    (stridulation)    made  by    the 
male  while  on  the  wing. 

2.  Find    in    a    live    specimen    the    large    spiracle 
(breathing  pore)  just  above  the  base  of  one  of  the 
middle  legs.    Watch  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
two  lips  that  guard  the  opening  into  the  spiracle. 
Place  some  fresh  leaves  of  corn  or  grass  under  a 
tumbler  and  watch  the  grasshopper's  mode  of  eat- 
ing.    Liberate  a  large  grasshopper  in  a  room  and 
note  its  longest  leaps.     How  many  times  its  own 
length?    Make  drawing  of  the  whole  insect. 


224  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

3.  Study  the  wings.     Note  how  they  are  folded. 
Compare  the  form,  color,  size,  texture,  position,  and 

use  of  the  two  wings. 
The   dry   horny   fore- 
wings     are     used     in 
making    the    peculiar 
sound  called  stridula- 
FIG.  68 — GREEN  STRIPED  LOCUST      tion.      Draw  the  two 
wings,  showing  system  of  veining. 

4.  How  does  the  third  pair  of  legs  compare  in 
shape,  size,  color,  and  use  with  the  first  and  second 
pairs?    Observe  the  hooks  and  double  row  of  spines 
on  the  lower  parts  of  one  of  the  large  legs.    Of  what 
advantage  are  these  to  the  insect?  Make  an  enlarged 
drawing  of  one  of  the  hind  legs. 

5.  The  female  may  be  distinguished  from  the  male 
by  the  ovipositor.     Find  this  at  the  end  of  the  ab- 
domen.    It  consists  of  four  points  and  is  used  for 
making  an  opening  in  the  ground  to  receive  the 
eggs.     Young  grasshoppers  are  called  nymphs,  and 
they  are  very  much  like  the  parent  in  shape  and 
appearance.    What  differences  do  you  note  between 
a  nymph  and  an  adult?    Catch  and  feed  some  young 
grasshoppers  for  a  month  and  make  notes  of  what 
changes  occur  as  the  nymphs  grow. 

6.  Compare  the  grasshopper  with  crickets,  katy- 
dids, and  cockroaches  and  note  their  points  of  re- 
semblance and  difference. 


EXERCISE  135 

THE  DRAGON-FLY  (ORDER  Ncuroptero) 
TIME:  SUMMER  OR  EARLY  FALL 

Object:    To  study  the  form  and  habits  of  the  dragon-fly. 
Material  needed:  Insect  net,  cyanide  bottle,  note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Collect  several  dragon-flies  and  keep  some  of 
them  alive.     While  collecting,  observe: 

1.  The  places  frequented. 

2.  The  habit  of  flight. 

3.  The  hours  of  flight. 

4.  The  food  sought. 

2.  Liberate  a  live  dragon-fly  in  a  closed  room  and 
note  its  mode  of  flight,  the  position  of  its  wings  in 


FIG.   69 — A    DRAGON-FLY 


226  RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

flight  and  at  rest.  Place  it  in  a  cyanide  bottle  only 
long  enough  to  stupefy  it,  then  turn  it  out  again 
upon  a  paper,  and  study  its  respiratory  movements. 
The  spiracles  or  breathing  pores  are  on  each  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen.  Two  larger  spiracles  are 
found  on  each  side  of  the  thorax.  Observe  that  the 
body  is  spindle-shaped,  the  head  is  rounded,  and 
the  abdomen  angled  and  tapering. 

3.  Note  the  shape  and  size  of  the  legs.    How  do 
they  compare  with  those  of  the  grasshopper?  What 
is  the  advantage  to  the  animal  in  having  all  the  legs 
bunched  together?     Draw  a  general  outline  of  this 
insect.    Make  an  enlarged  drawing  of  a  wing,  so  as 
to  show  the  veining.     Note  the  transparency  of  the 
wing. 

4.  Find   some   nymphs   in    a   shallow   pond    fre- 
quented by  the  dragon-fly.     The  nymphs  are  the 
young  dragon-flies.    Compare  all  parts  of  the  body 
with  the  full-grown  fly.     Look  about  the  vegeta- 
tion above  the  water  for  nymph  skins. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  many  species  of  dragon-flies  have  you 
seen? 

2.  Why  do  the  adults  often  dart  down  and  dip  the 
tip  of  their  abdomens  in  the  water? 

3.  What  obnoxious  insect  is  destroyed  by  dragon- 
flies? 

4.  Do  dragon-flies  fly  forward  only? 


EXERCISE  136 

THE   CICADA  OR  DOG-DAY   HARVEST  FLY 

(ORDER  Hemiptera) 
TIME:  SUMMER  OR  FALL 
Object:     To  study  the  harvest  fly. 
Material  needed:  Han'est  fty,  note-book. 

NOTE. — This  insect  is  known  by  its  shrill  cry  while  resting 
upon  the  boughs  of  trees.  Its  color 
is  black  and  green,  powdered  with 
white  underneath  the  body.  The 
young  flies  are  seldom  seen,  but  the 
exuviae,  or  cast-off  skins,  which  it 
sheds  in  molting,  are  objects  of 
common  observation.  Eggs  are  laid 
in  slits  made  in  the  twigs  of  trees. 
There  they  hatch ;  the  young  drop 
to  the  ground,  bury  themselves,  and 
feed  upon  the  juices  of  the  roots  of 
plants.  They  require  two  years  to 
complete  their  growth.  The  second 
summer  after  hatching,  the  nymph 
crawls  upon  a  weed  or  tree  trunk,  a 
short  distance  above  the  ground, 
and  there  molts,  or  casts  off  the  old 
skin.  After  the  wings  are  dry  it 
flies  away. 


FIG.  70 
DOG-DAY  HARVEST  FLY 


DIRECTIONS 

I.  Study   a    full-grown   specimen.     Observe   the 
general  shape  of  the  body.    Note  the  peculiar  mark- 


228  RURAL    SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

ings  on  the  body ;  the  shape  and  position  of  the 
eyes.  Observe  the  structure  of  the  wings.  Describe 
this.  Draw  a  wing.  How  do  the  legs  compare  with 
those  of  the  grasshopper? 

2.  Look  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen  for  the  musi- 
cal organs.  These  consist  of  ribbed  parchment- 
like  bags  in  little  depressions.  They  are  provided 
with  powerful  muscles  by  which  the  air  is  driven 
against  the  fluted  surfaces.  This  vibration  produces 
the  noisy  whirr  so  often  heard. 


EXERCISE  137 

THE  BLUEBOTTLE  FLY  (ORDER  Diptera) 
TIME:  DURING  WARM   WEATHER 

Object:     To  become  familiar  with  the  bluebottle  fly. 

Material  needed:  Pieces  of  fresh  tncat,  insect  net,  cyan- 
ide bottle. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Expose  a  bit  of  fresh  meat  until  some  of  the 
bluebottle  flies  are  attracted  to  it.    Note  the  sound  of 
their  buzzing  as  they  move  around  the  meat.     Do 
they  seem  to  be  shy?    Catch  a  fly  with  the  net;  hold 
it  by  the  feet,  leaving  its  wings  free.    Is  the  buzzing 
in  a  lighter  or  lower  key?     Hold  both  wings  and 
legs  and  note  any   difference   in  the  pitch  of  the 
sound.    How  do  you  account  for  this  variation? 

2.  Hold  the  piece  of  meat  in  the  fingers,  and  with 
a  hand  lens  study  the  fly's  feeding  habits.    What  is 

its  manner  of  eating?    Has  it  yet 
deposited  any  eggs  on  the  meat? 
3.  Leave  a  fly   in   the  cyanide 
bottle  until  it  is  dead.     Observe 
the  general  contour  of  the  body. 
Compare  the  shape  of  the  body 
with  that  of  the  other  insects  you 
have  studied.    Are  the  legs  of  the 
FIG.  71  "'         same  shape  and  size?     Note  the 
COMMON  FLUSH  FLY  number  of  segments  in  the  ab- 


23O  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

domen.  Study  the  shape,  size,  texture,  and  position 
of  the  wings.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  the  wings. 
4.  Place  a  bit  of  meat,  upon  which  eggs  have  been 
laid,  in  a  flower  pot  containing  sand.  Invert  a 
tumbler  over  this,  and  press  it  into  the  sand  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  offensive  odors.  The  eggs  will 
hatch  in  a  few  hours  and  the  larvae  will  soon  begin 
to  feed  upon  the  flesh.  Later  they  will  crawl  down 
into  the  sand  and  remain  until  they  transform  to 
the  adult  stage.  If  the  weather  is  warm  this  will  be 
speedily  done,  otherwise  they  may  pass  the  winter 
before  transforming. 


TIME:   FALL  OR  SPRING  TERM 

Object:     To    study   and   compare   different   species   of 
beetles. 

Material  needed:  Insect  net,  cyanide  bottle,  note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

i.  Collect  a  number  of 
beetles  and  name  them.  If 
you  are  unable  to  identify 


FIG.   72 — GROUND  BEETLE: 
0,  LARVA  ;   b,  ADULT 

some  of  the  beetles 
consult  Comstock's 
Insect  Life. 

2.  Study  the  differ- 
ent body  parts  as  in 
the  preceding  exer- 
cises. What  is  the 


FIG.  73— A  CLICK  BEETLE 


232  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

object  of  the  hard  wing  coverings  or  elytra?  Com- 
pare the  mode  of  locomotion  with  that  of  the  grass- 
hopper. Upon  what  do  the  beetles  feed? 

3.  Find  out  all  you  can  in  regard  to  the  corn  root 
worm,  and  prepare  a  short  paper  describing  it. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How   may  you    distinguish    caterpillars    from 
grubs? 

2.  Which  are  generally  larger,  beetles  or  bugs? 

3.  Are  there  any  water  beetles? 


EXERCISE  139 

BUMBLEBEES  (  ORDER  Hymenoptera) 
TIME:  FALL  TERM 

Object:    To  study  the  form  and  life  habits  of  the  bum- 
blebee. 

Material  needed:  Same  as  in  preceding  exercise. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Field  study  of  the  bumblebee.    Observe: 

1.  The  kind  of  flowers  upon  which  they  feed. 

2.  The  flower  most  frequented  by  them,  also 
what   other   insects   feed    upon   the    same 
flower. 

3.  The  two  products  gathered  from  flowers : 
nectar  and  pollen. 

4.  Whether  they  visit  more  than  one  species 
of  plants  on  the  same  trip. 

5.  Whether  they  are  shy  while  feeding. 

6.  The  time  spent  on  each  flower. 

2.  Wet  a  bee  with  water  while  feeding,  and  note 
the  effect  on  the  power  of  flight.    Are  bumblebees 
frequently  caught  in  rains? 

3.  Collect  several  bees  and  put  them  in  the  bottle. 
Note  the  pitch  of  the  humming  while  in  the  net. 
Compare  a  bumblebee  with  a  butterfly  in: 

1.  Speed  and  directness  of  flight. 

2.  Rapidity  of  wing  strokes. 

3.  Relative  size  of  body  and  wings. 


234  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  not  an  early  cutting  of  clover  make 
good  seed? 

2.  Why  does  the  honey  bee  feed  on  white  clover? 

3.  During  what  hours  of  the  day  are  bumblebees 
most  active? 

4.  Where  do  they  build  their  nests? 


EXERCISE  140 

THE  CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY  (ORDER  Lepidoptera) 
TIME:  SPRING  OR  FALL 

Object:  To  study  the  characteristics  of  the  cabbage 
butterfly. 

Material  needed:  Same  as  in  preceding  exercise. 

NOTE. — This  butterfly  is  small,  with  yellow  wings  bordered 
with  black,  and  has  a  silvery  spot  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
hind  wings. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Collect  specimens   for  use   and   for  preserva- 
tion.   While  collecting,  study  the  butterfly's  haunts 
and  habits.    Observe : 

1.  The   kind   of 
flowers  on   which 
they  feed. 

2.  Whether  they 
feed  while  on  the 
wing,     or     while 
resting     on     the 
flower. 

3.  The      food, 
which  is  nectar,  the  raw  material  of  which  honey  is 
made,  found  at  the  base  of  the  petals.     Can  you 
taste  the  nectar  in  the  flower?  What  organ  does  the 
butterfly  use  in  collecting  the  nectar? 

2.  Liberate  a  live  butterfly  on  a  closed  window. 


FIG.    74 — CABBAGE   BUTTERFLY 


236  RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Note  the  position  of  its  wings  when  at  rest.  This 
position  is  taken  by  all  true  butterflies  and  enables 
one  to  distinguish  a  butterfly  from  a  moth.  Ob- 
serve the  insect's  irregular  flight  and  peculiar  jerky 
walk. 

3.  Make  careful  observation  of  all  parts  of  the 
body  and  record  what  you  see.    Examine  the  scales 
under  a  lens. 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  a  number  of  species  of 
butterflies  and  note  differences  in  shape,  size,  color, 
and  habits. 


EXERCISE  141 

PREPARATION  OF  SPRAYING  MATERIAL 

TIME:  ju1  BEFORE  TIME  FOR  SPRAYING 


Object:  To  learn  how  to  prepare  Bordeaux  mixture, 
Paris  green,  kerosene  emulsion,  and  lime-sulphur  wash. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  Bordeaux  mixture: 
Prepare  the  mixture  as  follows: 

Copper  sulphate   (blue  vitriol),  4  pounds. 

Quicklime  (not  slaked),  4  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Hang  the  copper  sulphate  in  a  burlap  bag  which 
dips  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  25  gallons 
of  the  water  in  a  barrel.  In  another  barrel  slake  the 
lime  with  a  little  water  and  when  done  add  the 
balance  of  the  water;  stir  and  strain.  Pour  the  two 
solutions  together  either  through  hose  or  from  two 
pails  held  near  each  other  and  poured  from  simul- 
taneously so  the  two  streams  mix  as  they  fall  and 
continue  to  do  so  in  the  barrel.  If  Bordeaux  is  to  be 
used  on  peach  foliage,  add  25  more  gallons  of  water. 

2.  Paris  green  : 

For  apples  and  pears:  i  pound  of  Paris  green,  2 
pounds  lime,  150  gallons  of  water. 

For  plum  and  cherry  :  i  pound  of  Paris  green,  2 
pounds  lime,  300  gallons  of  water. 


238  RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

For  potato  beetle:  I  pound  Paris  green,  60  gal- 
lons of  water. 

Paris  green  should  not  be  used  on  peach  foliage. 

Mix  the  Paris  green  in  a  cup  with  a  little  water, 
until  it  is  like  paste.  If  added  dry  to  the  water  it 
will  float. 

3.  Kerosene    emulsion:    For    kerosene    emulsion 
use  the  following  ingredients :    . 

Kerosene  (coal  oil),  2  gallons. 

Rain  water,  i  gallon. 

Soap,  y2  pound. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water;  remove  from 
*he  fire  and  while  hot  pour  in  the  kerosene.  Churn 
briskly  for  five  minutes.  Before  using  dilute  with 
six  to  nine  parts  of  water. 

4.  Lime-sulphur  wash: 

Lime,  15  pounds. 

Sulphur,  15  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Slake  the  lime  with  hot  water,  then  add  water  till 
it  makes  a  thin  whitewash.  Blend  the  sulphur  with 
water  into  a  thin  paste ;  add  to  the  whitewash  and 
mix  thoroughly.  Boil  one  hour,  or  until  the  mix- 
ture is  of  a  brick-red  color,  stirring  frequently  tb 
keep  it  from  caking  on  the  side  of  the  vessel.  Dilute 
to  50  gallons  and  bring  to  a  boil  again ;  strain  it 
boiling  hot  through  a  wire  screen  and  apply  as  hot 
as  possible. 


EXERCISE  142 

STUDY   OF  SPRAYING  CALENDAR 
TIME:  WHENEVER  CONVENIENT 

Object:    To  learn  how  to  combat  insect  pests  and  plant 
diseases. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study  well  the  table  given  in  this  exercise,  so  that 
you  may  know  when,  how,  and  for  what  to  spray. 


Insect  Pest  or  Disease 

When  to  Spray 

With  What  lo  Spray 

All  scale  insects 

Early  spring  before  buds  swell 

Lime-sulphur  wash 

Striped  melon  beetle 

When  young  plants  appear 
above  ground 

Tobacco  dust 

All  leaf-eating  insects 

When  insects  appear 

Paris  green,  or  other 
arsenical  poison 

Fruit  rot 

Before  blossoms  open 

Bordeaux  mixture 

Codling  moth 

Just  after  the  blossoms  fall 

Paris  green 

Leaf  curl 

Before  buds  swell 

Bordeaux  mixture 

Twig  blight* 

Before  buds  open 

Lime-sulphur  wash 

Potato  scab 

Treat  before  planting 

a  percent,  solution 
of  formalin 

All  sucking;  insects,  as 
plant  lice 

When  insects  appear 

Kerosene  emulsion  or 
miscible  oils 

Mildews  and  black 
rot  of  grape 

before  blossoms  open 
When  leaves  are  one-third 
grown 
Just  after  fruit  sets,  and  every 
two  weeks  thereafter 

Bordeaux  mixture 

*  Cut  affected  branches  back  to  sound  wood  and  burn  them.     Keep  tools  dis- 
infected by  wiping  with  cloth  saturated  with  kerosene. 


EXERCISE  143 

PREPARATION   OF   HERBARIUM   SPECIMENS 
TIME:  SPRING  TERM 

Object:      To    learn    how    to    prepare    plants    for    the 
herbarium. 

Material  needed:  Newspapers,  carpet  paper,  scissors, 
note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1.  In  preparing  herbarium  specimens,  use  driers 
made  of  ordinary  carpet  paper,  cut  into  sheets  12  by 
18  inches.     Place  each  plant  in  a  folder  made  of 
newspaper,  and  alternate  with  the  driers. 

2.  Place  upon  the  pack  a  plank  of  the  same  size 
as  the  driers,  and  subject  the  whole  to  a  pressure  of 
50  to  100  pounds  by  means  of  blocks  of  wood,  or 
stones. 

3.  The  driers  must  be  replaced  by  dry  ones  daily 
during  the  first  four  or  five  days,  and  after  that 
at  longer  intervals   for  a  week  or  ten  days,  until 
the    specimens    are    dry.      In    changing   the    driers 
simply  shift  the  folders  containing  the  plants  from 
one  set  of  driers  to  dry  ones. 

4.  When  the  specimens  are  dry,  fasten  them  to 
stiff   white  paper  by  means  of  strips  of  gummed 
paper.     Place  a  label  bearing  the  name,  place,  date 
of  collecting,  and  collector's  name  in  the  lower  right- 
hand  corner. 

5.  Collect  all  the  different  weeds  of  the  farm,  dry, 
mount,  label,  and  keep  for  future  reference. 


GLOSSARY 

Absorption — The  process  of  taking  in  substances,  as  a  sponge 

drinking  in  water. 

Acid — A  chemical  compound  sour  to  the  taste,  capable  of  turn- 
ing blue  litmus  paper  red. 
Alkaline — Alkaline  substances  are  not  sour,  have  a  soapy  taste, 

and  turn  reddened  litmus  paper  blue. 

Ammonia — A  chemical  combination  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen. 
Ash — The  material  left  after  the  burning  of  organic  substances. 
Assimilate — To  convert  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant  or  of  the 

animal. 
Bacteria — Minute   plants   frequently  present   in   fermentation, 

decay,  and  disease.     They  thrive  in  the  nodules  found  on 

the  roots  of  clover,  alfalfa,  cow-peas,  etc. 
Balanced  ration — A  feed  containing  the  proper  proportion  of 

protein  and  carbohydrates. 
Barren — Not  fruitful. 
Calcium  carbonate — Limestone ;  a  combination  of  carbonic  acid 

gas  and  calcium. 

Calyx — A  whorl  of  green  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  flower. 
Capillary — Applied    to    very    minute    tubes    or    pore    spaces 

through  which  liquids  may  move. 
Carbohydrates — Foods  which  include  starch,  the  sugars,  and 

cellulose.     They  are  composed  of  carbon,   hydrogen,   and 

oxygen. 

Carbon   dioxide — Sometimes  called  carbonic  acid  gas ;   com- 
posed of  oxygen  and  carbon. 
Cereals — Crops  which  are  grown  for  their  grain. 
Chemical   change — A   change   in   which   a   new    substance   is 

formed. 
Clay — The  finest  of  soil  particles ;    a  combination  of  silica, 

alumina,  and  water. 
Combustion — The  act  of  burning. 
Condensation — The  process  of  changing  gases  or  vapors  to  the 

liquid  state, 


242  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

Copper    sulphate — Bluestone;    a   combination   of   copper   and 

sulphuric  acid. 
Corolla — A  whorl  of  leaves  just  inside  the  calyx  and  usually 

colored  other  than  green. 

Cryptogam — A  low  class  of  flowerless  plants;  example,  mush- 
rooms. 
Curculio — A  snouted  beetle,  very  injurious  to  the  plum  and 

apricot. 
Cuttings — Parts  of  the  stem,  root,  or  leaf  used  for  producing 

a  new  plant. 

De  Candolle — A  French  botanist. 
Decomposition — The  act  of  breaking  up  a  compound  into  its 

elements. 
Deliquescent — Branched  in  a  manner  so  that  the  stem  or  trunk 

is  lost  in  the  branches. 
Detasseling — Removing  the  tassels. 
Disseminate — To  scatter,  as  seed;  to  spread. 
Dormant — Not  active ;  asleep. 
Effervescence — The    production    of    innumerable    small    gas 

bubbles  in  a  liquid  by  chemical  activity. 
Evaporation — The  changing  from  a  liquid  to  a  gaseous  state. 
Excurrent — The  term  used  when  an  axis  continues  throughout 

the  body.     Example,  the  trunk  of  a  pine. 
Experiment — A  trial,  proof,  or  test  of  anything. 
Fertility — Fruitfulness,  richness,  power  to  produce. 
Fertilizer — Any  material  that  will  enrich  the  soil  and  supply 

plant  food. 

Fiber — Short  cells  which  make  up  the  substance  of  solid  wood. 
Fibrous — Consisting   of   fibers.      Example,    the   roots   of   the 

wheat  plant. 

Florist — One  who  cultivates  flowering  plants. 
Formaldehyde — A   chemical    compound    used    for   preventing 

decay. 
Function — Office  or  action  of  organs  in  animal  or  vegetable 

life. 

Germinate — To  grow. 
Gluten — A  substance  in  grains  containing  albumen.    It  makes 

wheat  dough  tenacious  and  elastic. 
Graphic — Written,  drawn,  inscribed. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  243 

Gravity — The  force  which  tends  to  pull  bodies  to  the  center  of 
the  earth. 

Heaves — A  disease  in  horses  characterized  by  heavy  and  labori- 
ous breathing. 

Humus — Vegetable  mold  formed  by  the  decay  of  plants. 

Ingredient — One  of  the  substances  composing  any  compound 
or  mixture. 

Insoluble — Not  readily  dissolved. 

Kainit — A  potash  fertilizer  found  in  large  quantities  in  Ger- 
many ;  contains  about  25  per  cent,  sulphate  of  potash, 
mixed  with  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  common  salt. 

Kernel — That  which  is  inclosed  in  a  shell,  husk,  etc. 

Lime — Combination  of  calcium  and  oxygen,  formed  by  burn- 
ing limestone. 

Lime  water — A  solution  made  by  dissolving  lime  in  water. 

Litmus  paper — A  paper  used  for  determining  whether  sub- 
stances are  acid  or  alkaline. 

Loam — Soil  containing  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay. 

Membrane — A  thin  tissue  that  will  permit  the  passage  of  a 
liquid  through  it. 

Mulch — A  layer  of  vegetable  matter  or  dust  on  the  soil  used 
to  check  the  loss  of  soil  moisture  by  evaporation. 

Nectar — A  sweet  juice  found  in  flowers  from  which  bees  make 
honey. 

Nitrate — Combination  of  nitric  acid  with  a  metal  or  salt. 
The  form  of  nitrogen  used  by  plants. 

Nitrogen — An  element  of  plant -food  used  chiefly  in  making 
stems  and  leaves. 

Nitrogen-free  extract — Animal  or  vegetable  compounds  with 
no  nitrogen  in  their  composition. 

Nitrogenous  matter — Substances  containing  nitrogen. 

Nutritive — Having  the  power  of  nourishing  or  building  up  the 
body. 

Oblate — Flattened  or  shortened. 

Oblong — Longer  than  broad. 

Organic  matter — The  part  that  passes  into  the  air  in  burning 
substances. 

Osmosis — The  mixing  of  dissimilar  substances  through  a 
porous  membrane, 


244  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

Ovary — A  hollow  case  at  the  base  of  the  pistil  containing  the 

egg  cell. 
Pasteurizing — A  process  by  which  the  fermentation  of  milk  is 

retarded. 

Petal — One  of  the  divisions  of  the  corolla. 
Phosphoric    acid — Compound    composed    of    phosphorus    and 

oxygen. 

Pistil — Part  of  the  flower  that  receives  the  pollen. 
Potash — Composed   of   potassium    and   oxygen ;    one   of    the 

essentials  of  plant  food. 

Prolificacy — Fruitfulness,  great  productiveness. 
Propagate — To  generate,  to  increase,  to  renew. 
Protein — An  ingredient  of  foods  used  in  building  muscle. 
Protoplasm — The  living  matter  of  a  cell. 
Rape — A  plant  of  the  turnip  family. 
Ration — A  fixed  amount  or  quantity  of  food. 
Resin — A  substance  that  exudes  from  plants  when  incisions 

are  made  in  the  stems  or  branches. 
Respiration — The  act  of  breathing. 
Rigidity — The  state  of  being  rigid. 
Saturate — To  fill  fully,  to  soak. 
Sediment — The  matter  which  settles  to  the  bottom  from  water 

or  any  other  liquid. 

Sepal — One  of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx. 
Silt — Very  fine  soil  particles,  just  between  fine  sand  and  clay 

in  size. 
Solutions — Product  formed  by  dissolving  a  gas  or  a  solid  in 

water. 
Stamen — Parts  of  the  flower  which  bear  the  pollen. 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


245 


APPENDIX   OF   USEFUL   TABLES 


SCORE    CARDS 

COMPOSITION  OF  MANURES 

TABLE  I 
NITROGENOUS  MANURES 


Article 

Pounds  in  a  Hundred 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

51A    o  16 

9            0    20j< 

0           0    II 
I           0    I2# 

5      to    6 
7      to    g 
6»  to    7% 

3    o    S 

102 
II      O    14 

608 

I      O      2 

Concentrated  tankage  

a  to  3 

TABLE  II 
PHOSPHATIC  MANURES 


Pounds  in  a  Hundred 


Article 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Nitrogen 

Available 

Insoluble 

Total 

South  Carolina  phosphate  rock 

26  to  28 
33  «o  35 
i  to    3 
I  to     4 
15  to  17 
16  to  20 
2  to    3 

26    o  »8 

33    °  3S 
13    o  16 
16    o  20 
20    o  25 

22     O   99 

15  to  17 

South  Carolina  dissolved  rock. 
Florida  dissolved  rock  

12  to  15 

14  to  16 
5  to    8 
6  to    q 
13  to  15 

t«  to  4 
i«  to  2 

a      to  3 

Steamed  bone  

246 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  III 
POTASSIC  MANURES 


Article 

Pounds  in  a  Hundred 

Potash 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Lime 

Chlorine 

40      to  48 

30      to  32 
42       to  46 

48   to  52 

Kainit  

Cottonseed:   hull  ashes  

20  to  30 
2  to    8 

I     tO       2 

5  to     8 

7  to  9 

I     tO    2 

1     tO    1% 

3  to  5 

10 
30  to  35 
35  to  4° 

Wood  ashes,  leached  

TABLE  IV 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  MANURES 


Pounds  in  a  Hundred 


Article 

Moisture 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lime 

85.3 

0.38 

0.36 

0.28 

64.6 

o  81 

0.45 

0.08 

1.63 

0.85 

Mixed  stable  manure.... 

75-o 

0.50 

0,26 

0.63 

0.70 

RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


247 


m  os  in   .  i«  o  O       Q?  O  r^oo  r»  oo  «        o-oo 
»  JT  r,    .  -  5  3       •  ft  ClJ  ir  ««  N 

odd*  odd   ddddddo   do   d  o  d  6  ~ 


*-  t%.  •*  o  ^-oo  M       *•  1^-1  o  oo 
w  - 


M 

zl 


o  r^  -  o  o>oo  o      KOO  O"O  oo  «  •»      on       onr^on 


o  O  rn  •*•  O"O  o       O"O  i^ 
«me<m»»n       moo  oo 


o  •*   o-  o-  o*  tx  o   tr  ^06  r*>  —  b» 
f>  oo  oo  oo  oo  S>  oo  jo  oo  ao  oao 


S  y-  '-1  i-'-r 


§<sJH3Miii*slS8!>£l1      »i=1^3-sl 

i  sitl-s  ifi^&a  ^  Hi!  li  c  ssin&i  =l^= = 

«po>'Ut'OOv.O-—   SUO<*^S3O--O"«S  -    -  ~  ~    ; 

j;tjc«a:^ai!uu  nUril^uC?  gHft.  2OCauu=uo#?uo 


248  RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

TABLE  VI 

STANDARD  FERTILIZER  FORMULAS  FOR  CORN  AND  COTTON  ON  OLD 
UPLANDS,  RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  GEORGIA  STATION* 

FORMULA  NO.  I 
For  Corn  on  Old,  Worn  Uplands 

1.  Acid  phosphate  (14  per  cent.) 1,000  Ibs. 

2.  Cotton  meal   (2l/2  -.7:  il/2) 1,250  Ibs. 

3.  Muriate  of  potash  (50  per  cent.) 30  Ibs. 

4.  (or  kainit,  120  Ibs.) 


Total 2,280  Ibs. 

Analysis : 

Ph.         Ni.        Po. 

Using  i,  2,  3 7.50        3.83        1.48 

Using  i,  2,  4 7.21        3.70        1.43 

FORMULA  NO.  2 

For  Cotton  on  Old,  Worn  Uplands 

1.  Acid  phosphate  ( 14  per  cent.) 1,000  Ibs. 

2.  Cotton  meal   (2^  :  7 : 1 */2) 700  Ibs. 

3.  Muriate  of  potash  (50  per  cent.) 75  Ibs. 

4.  (or  kainit,  300  Ibs.) 


Total 1,775  Ibs. 

Analysis : 

Ph.         Ni.        Pp. 

Using  i,  2,  3 8.87        2.70        2.70 

Using  i,  2,  4 7.87        2.45        2.45 

On  well  improved  soils,  or  comparatively  new  lands,  the 
cottonseed  meal  may  be  reduced  by  one-third  to  one-half  in 
either  of  the  foregoing  formulas.  On  such  soils,  when  only  a 
very  light  application  is  intended  to  be  made,  acid  phosphate 
alone  may  give  more  profitable  results  than  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer. 

*  Bulletin  69 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


249 


TABLE  VII 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  MANURES 


Farm  Manures 


Pounds  in  a  Hundred 


Nitrogen 


Total  Ph<*. 
Acid 


Potash 


Lime 


Cow  manure  (fresh) . . . 
Horse  manure  (fresh)  . 
Sheep  niamiie  (fresh) 
Hog  manure  (fresh). . . 
Hen  manure  (fresh). . . 
Mixed  stable  manure  . 


0.^4 
0.58 
0.83 
o-45 
1.63 
0.50 


0.16 
0.28 
0.23 
0.19 
'•54 
0.26 


0.40 
0.53 
0.67 
0.60 
0.85 
0.63 


0.3* 

O.2I 

o-33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 


TABLE  VIII 
LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  A  BUSHEL  OF  PRODUCE 


Articles 


Pi  mnds 


Apples 

Apples,  dried  . .. 

Beans   

Buckwheat 

Corn,  ear    

Corn,  shelled .. .. 

Onions 

Peaches  

Potatoes,  Irish. . 
Potatoes,  Sweet 

Peas 

Bluegrass  seed. . . 

Timothy 

Cloverseed 

Cottonseed 

Wheat    

Oats , 

Turnips 

Barley 

Rye 


48 
»4 
6c 
5» 

70 
56 

57 


55 
60 

«4 
45 

Oo 

1* 
60 

3» 

55 
48 
60 


250  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

COTTON  SCORE  CARD  (JOHNSON) 

1.  PLANT 

Size,  medium  to  large 6  

Form,  spreading  conically 6  

With  jointed  and  developed  branches  4  

Properly    shaped   and    filled   head  or 

center    4  

2.  PROLIFICACY 

Number  of  bolls 10     

Trueness,  to  variety  type  in  arrange- 
ment of  boils,  singly  or  in  clusters. .     5     

3.  BOLLS 

Size,  large 5     

Form,  true  to  type 5     

Opening,  good,  fair,  poor 5     

4.  TOTAL  YIELD  OF  SEED  COTTON 20     

5.  PER  CENT.  OF  LINT  TO  SEED 20     

6.  LINT 

Length  2.5 

Fineness    2.5  

Purity 2.5  

Uniformity  2.5  


Total 100 


Name  of  scorer 

Date 

Place. 
Sample  No Rank .... 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  JUDGING  COTTON* 

On  the  score  card  as  suggested  the  ideal  plant  is  given  a 
rating  of  20  points.  In  judging  the  exhibits  in  contests,  cuts 
should  be  made  more  severe  as  the  plant  departs  further  from 
the  standard. 

*  From  Bulletin  No.  44,  University  of  Georgia. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  251 


i.  THE  PLANT 

For  plants  departing  only  slightly  from  the  variety  standard 
as  to  size,  a  cut  of  one  to  two  points  should  be  made.  If  this 
departure  is  very  marked,  a  cut  of  four  points  may  be  made. 
For  less  than  three  or  more  than  four  lower  long  branches  cut 
one  point  for  each  unit  of  departure.  If  these  branches  are 
defective  either  in  total  length  or  in  diameter  of  the  stem,  cut 
from  one  to  three  points  as  the  departure  may  be  more  or  less 
pronounced. 

For  excessively  long  joints  and  poorly  placed  and  developed 
branches  cut  a  maximum  of  three  points.  For  slight  defects 
in  these  respects  cut  from  one-half  to  two  points. 

For  a  well  opened  or  vase-shaped  head  admitting  air  and 
light  in  abundance,  allow  four  points  as  the  perfect  score. 
When  the  head  is  full  on  account  of  superabundance  of  long 
upright  branches,  cut  a  maximum  of  three  points ;  as  these 
faults  are  less  pronounced  reduce  the  cuts  until  for  slight  de- 
fects on  these  accounts  a  maximum  cut  of  one-half  point 
should  be  given. 


2.  PROLIFICACY 

In  considering  the  fruitfulness  of  a  plant  or  set  of  plants 
the  term  prolificacy  can  be  used  only  in  a  relative  sense.  The 
plant  possessing  the  greater  number  of  bolls  should  be  given 
a  rating  of  ten,  or  perfect  in  this  respect ;  while  others  should 
be  cut  more  or  less  severely  as  the  number  of  bolls  they  bear 
fall  below  that  of  the  standard.  The  single  or  cluster  arrange- 
ment of  bolls  should  vary  with  the  typical  habit  of  the 
variety — some  varieties  are  cluster-bearers,  while  others  are 
noted  for  bearing  bolls  singly.  Uniformity  in  which  the  bolls 
are  arranged  on  any  exhibit  should  be  made  the  standard. 
Give  an  exhibit  absolutely  uniform  in  this  respect  five  points. 
As  others  are  more  or  less  irregular  in  this  respect  cut  from 
one  to  four  points  on  the  score  card. 


252  RURAL   SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

3.  BOLLS 

Next  in  importance  to  prolificacy  or  number  of  bolls  is  their 
size,  shape,  and  manner  of  opening.  Large  bolls  yield  more 
cotton  to  the  boll  than  do  small  ones.  There  is  also  a  differ- 
ence in  the  average  size  of  the  bolls  on  different  plants  of  any 
single  variety.  The  preference  should  be  given  to  the  plants 
bearing  the  larger  bolls,  provided,  of  course,  the  increase  in 
size  fully  compensates  for  the  decrease  in  number.  Let  the 
judge  of  any  set  of  exhibits  strike  an  average  in  size  of  the 
bolls  on  three  of  the  largest  boiled  stalks  shown  and  use  this 
as  his  standard. 

Now,  as  plants  are  judged  for  size  of  bolls,  where  bolls  are 
only  slightly  below  the  standard  cut  from  one-half  to  one 
point.  As  this  departure  becomes  more  marked  the  cuts 
should  be  more  severe,  until  the  maximum  cut  of  four  points 
should  be  made  for  a  plant  whose  bolls  are  less  than  one-half 
the  standard  size. 

The  shape  or  form  should  be  true  to  that  peculiar  to  the 
particular  variety  shown.  Uniformity  in  shape  or  form  in 
plants  and  fruit  shows  good  breeding,  and  also  suggests  ability 
to  transmit  desirable  qualities  to  the  progeny.  Consequently, 
it  is  of  value  to  the  plant  breeder.  Give 'the  plant  whose  bolls 
are  all  of  one  form  or  shape  consistent  with  that  of  the  variety 
a  rating  of  five  points.  As  the  bolls  are  of  different  shapes 
cut  from  one  to  four  points  as  the  number  departing  greatly 
from  the  variety  shape  increases. 

The  way  in  which  the  mature  bolls  open  is  of  importance. 
The  opening  should  be  such  as  to  make  the  cotton  easy  to  pick, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  should  not  be  such  as  to  cause  shed- 
ding of  lint.  For  the  best  opening  bolls  give  the  plant  a  rating 
of  five  points.  If  the  opening  is  only  fair,  make  a  cut  of  from 
one  to  two,  and  when  it  is  poor  cut  from  three  to  four  points. 

4.  YIELD  OF  SEED  COTTON 

Yield  of  seed  cotton  while  depending  on  the  three  qualities 
already  discussed,  that  is,  the  right  kind  of  plant  and  a  suffi- 
ciently large  number  of  bolls  of  good  size  and  shape,  should 


RURAL  SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

have  considerable  weight  in  fixing  the  value  or  superior  rating 
of  any  cotton  exhibit. 

After  the  exlnl  it  li.is  Invn  r.itrd  as  to  prolificacy  and  size  of 
bolls,  select  a  fixed  number,  say  ten  average  sized  bolls,  already 
opened,  pick  the  seed  cotton  from  these  bolls,  determine  the 
yield  from  these  bolls,  and  then  with  this  average  calculate  the 
yield  from  the  entire  ten  plants  constituting  the  exhibit.  Give 
the  best-yielding  lot  a  rating  of  20  points.  Then  as  others  yield 
less  and  less  give  them  a  maximum  of  15  points. 

5.  PER  CENT.  OF  LINT 

After  the  total  yield  has  been  rated  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  per  cent,  of  lint  produced  by  the  different  lots  of  cotton 
to  be  judged.  This  is  given  a  possible  rating  of  20  points, 
which  should  be  assigned  only  to  samples  showing  not  less 
than  35  per  cent,  of  the  lint  to  seed  cotton.  For  each  and 
every  i  per  cent,  below  35  the  sample  should  be  given  a  cut 
of  one  point.  Thus  if  a  sample  should  show  only  25  per  cent. 
lint,  it  should  receive  a  cut  of  10  points,  which  deducted  from 
the  possible  score  of  20  points,  indicating  perfection,  leaves 
only  10  points  to  the  credit  of  the  sample. 

The  per  cent,  of  lint  should  be  determined  by  taking  the 
contents  of  a  few  bolls  from  each  sample,  placing  them  in  the 
sun  or,  better,  a  dry  room  for  a  period  sufficiently  long  to 
bring  the  samples  to  a  uniform  point  of  dryness;  after  which 
the  lint  should  be  removed  from  the  seed  by  hand,  after  which 
each  should  be  carefully  weighed  and  the  percentages  calcu- 
lated. 

6.  QUALITY  OF  LINT 

Quality  of  lint  is  assigned  a  possible  rating  of  ten  points  on 
the  score  card.  These  are  divided  up  as  follows:  Length,  2j4 
points ;  fineness,  2.r4  ;  purity,  2jX  ;  uniformity  as  to  length,  fine- 
ness, purity,  and  freedom  from  faulty  fibers,  2^4  points.  Of 
course,  these  scores  are  intended  only  to  offer  means  or  stand- 
ards by  which  the  different  exhibits  may  be  compared.  There- 
fore, when  there  is  a  point  about  which  there  seems  to  be  un- 
certainty, the  most  perfect  sample  can  well  be  given  the  highest 


254 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


OFFICIAL  CORN  SCORE  CARD 

(After  Holden) 


Name  of  scorer Date Place. 

Sample  No Table 


I.     Triteness  to  type  or  breed 
characteristics 10 


a.    Shape  of  ear 10 


3.     Purity  of  color — 

a.  Grain 5 


B.  Cob 5 


4.     Vitality  or  seed  condition  10 


5-     Tips. 


6.     Butts 5 


7.     Kernels,  a.  uniformity  of  10 


t.     Shape  of 5 


8.     Length  of  ear 10 


g.     Circumference  of  ear. ...     5 


10.     Space  —  a.    Furrows  be- 
tween rows 


b.     Space  between   ker- 
nels at  cob 5 


ii.     Proportion  of  corn  to  cob  10 


Total ic 


REASONS  FOR  CUTS 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE  255 

score  obtainable  for  that  point ;  then  the  others  should  be 
rated  as  they  approach  the  standard  fixed  by  this  best  sample. 
Thus,  for  the  longest  lint  give  two  and  a  half  points,  and 
tlu-  same  for  the  fuu--t.  ;I!M>  tint  showing  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  purity,  and  also  for  the  greatest  uniformity.  Then 
as  other  samples  fall  short  in  any  one  or  all  these  respects,  cut 
accordingly. 

This  score  card  is  not  intended  as  a  final  and  inflexible  yard- 
stick by  which  the  merits  of  cotton  of  various  types  shall  be 
measured  throughout  years  to  come,  but  rather  as  a  temporary 
one  to  be  used  only  until  a  better  and  more  suitable  one  is 
suggested. 

EXPLANATION  OF  POINTS  IN  CORN  JUDGING 

1.  Trueness  to  type  or  breed  characteristics ;  10  points — The 
ten  ears  in  the  sample  should  possess  similar  or  like  character- 
istics and  should  be  true  to  the  variety  which  they  represent. 

2.  Shape  of  ear;    10  points — The  shape  of  the  ear  should 
conform  to  the  variety  type.     Ears  should  be  full  and  strong 
in  central  portion,  and  not  taper  too  rapidly  toward  the  tip, 
indicating  strong  constitution  and  good  yield. 

3.  Purity  of  color:    (a)   Grain;  five  points — Color  of  grain 
should  be  true  to  variety  and  free  from  mixture.    For  one  or 
two  mixed  kernels,  a  cut  of  one-fourth  point ;  for  four  or  more 
mixed  kernels,  a  cut  of  one-half  point  should  be  made.     Dif- 
ferences in   shade  of  color,  as  light  or  dark  red,   white  or 
cream  color,  must  be  scored  according  to  variety  character- 
istics,    (b)  Cob;  five  points — An  ear  with  white  cob  in  yellow 
corn  or  red  cob  in  white  corn  should  be  disqualified  or  marked 
zero.     This  mixture  reduces  the  value  of  the  corn  for  seed 
purposes,  indicates  lack  of  purity,  and  tends  toward  a  too  wide 
variation  in  time  of  maturity,  size  and  shape  of  kernels   etc. 

4.  Vitality  or  seed  condition;  10  points — Corn  should  be  in 
good  market  condition,  show  good  constitution,  being  capable 
of  producing  strong,  vigorous  growth  and  yield. 

5.  Tips ;   five  points — The   form  of  tip   should  be   regular ; 
kernels  near  tip  should  be  of  regular  shape  and  size.     The 
proportion  of  tip  covered  or  filled  must  be  considered.    Long 


256  RURAL  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

pointed  tips,  as  well  as  blunt,  flattened,  or  double  tips,  are  ob- 
jectionable. 

6.  Butts ;  five  points — The  rows  of  kernels  should  extend  in 
regular  order  over  the  butt,  leaving  a  deep  depression  when 
the  shank  is  removed.     Open  and  swelled  butts,  pressed  and 
flat  butts  with  flattened,  glazed  kernds.  are  objectionable  and 
must  be  cut  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  scorer. 

7.  Kernels:  (a)  uniformity  of,  10  points;  (&)  shape  of,  five 
points — The  kernels   should    be   uniform    in    shape   and    size, 
making  it  possible  to  secure  uniformity  in  dropping  with  the 
planter,  and  consequently  a  good  stand.     The  kernels  should 
also  be  not  only  uniform  in  individual  ear,  but  uniform  with 
each  ear  in  the  sample.    They  should  be  uniform  in  color  and 
true  to  variety  type.     The  kernels  should  be  so  shaped  that 
their  edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown.     The  tip  portion  of  the 
kernel  is  rich  in  protein  and  oil,  and  hence  of  high  feeding 
value.     Kernels   with   a   large  germ   insure   strong,   vigorous 
growth  as  well  as  richness  in  quality  of  kernel. 

8.  Length  of  ear;   10  points — The  length  of  ear  varies  ac- 
cording to  variety  type  and  the  characteristics  sought  for  by 
the  individual  breeder.     Uniformity  in  length  is  to  be  sought 
for  in  a  sample,  and  a  sample  having  even  lengths  of  ears 
should  score  higher  than  one  that  varies,  even  if  it  be  within 
the  limits.    Usual  lengths  of  ears,  8^  to  12  inches.    Very  long 
ears  are  objectionable  because  they  usually  have  poor  butts  and 
tips,  broad  shallow  kernels,  and  hence  a  low  percentage  of 
corn  to  cob. 

9.  Circumference  of  ear;  five  points — The  points  made  on 
length  of  ear,  differing  with  variety  types,  hold  true  also  in 
circumference  of  ear.     The  circumference  of  the  ear  should 
be  in  symmetry  with  its  length.     An  ear  too  great  in  circum- 
ference for  its  length  is  generally  slow  in  maturing,  and  too 
frequently  results  in  soft  corn.     Dimensions  should  be  from 
6l/>  to  9  inches  in  circumference.     Measure  the  circumference 
at  one-third -the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip  of  the  ear. 

10.  (a)  Furrows  between  rows;  five  points — The  furrows  be- 
tween the  rows  of  kernels  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  permit 
the  corn  to  dry  out  readily,  but  not  so  large  as  to  lose  pro- 
portion of  corn  to  cob.     (b)  Space  between  tips  of  kernels  at 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 

cob;  five  points — This  is  very  objectionable,  as  it  indicates  im- 
maturity, weak  constitution,  and  poor  feeding  value. 

II.  Proportion  of  corn  to  cob;  10  points — The  proportion  of 
corn  is  determined  by  weight.  Depth  of  kernels,  size  of  cob, 
maturity,  furrows  and  space  at  cob,  all  affect  the  proportion. 
In  determining  the  proportion  of  corn  to  cob,  weigh  and  shell 
every  alternate  ear  in  exhibit.  Weigh  the  cobs  and  subtract 
from  weight  of  ears,  giving  weight  of  corn ;  divide  the  weight 
of  corn  by  total  weight  of  ears,  which  will  give  the  per  cent, 
of  corn.  Per  cent,  of  corn  should  be  from  86  to  87.  For 
each  per  cent,  short  of  standard  a  cut  of  il/3  points  should  be 
made.  Each  sample  should  consist  of  ten  ears  of  corn. 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 
Dairy  Division 


SANITARY  INSPECTION  OF  CITY  MILK  PLANTS 

Owner  or  manager: Trade  name:   

City: Street  and  No.: State: 


jMilk 

Number  of  wagons  : Gallons  sold  daily  •  •< 

|  Cream, 

Permit  or  license  No.: Date  of  inspection: ,190 


SCORE 

REMARKS 

Perfect 

Allowed 

MILK    ROOM 

Construction  — 
Floor  (3)  

I 

Walls  and  ceiling  (3)     

I  " 

15 

10 

Equipment  — 
Arrangement  (3)  

Durability  (a)  

J 
1 

MILK 

Storage  (8)  

1 

SALES   ROOM 

Construction  (2)  

1      '° 
I     ,o 

WAGONS 

Cleanliness  (5)  

[ 

Total         

Sanitary  conditions  are — Excellent : Good  : 

Suggestions  by  inspector: r. 


Fair: Poor: 


Signed  : . 


Inspector. 


RURAL   SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE  25Q 

WAGONS 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE. — If  painted  ami  in  good  repair,  allow  2  points;   for   fair 

condition,    i  ;    poor,   o. 
PROTKCIION   OK   I'KOIH  cr.-    If  product  is  iced,  allow  3  points;  well  protected  but 

not  iced,   i ;  no  protection,  o. 
CLEANLINESS. — If  perfectly  clean,  allow  5;  good,  3;  fair,  2;  poor,  o. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SCORING 

FLAVOR 

If  rich,  sweet,  clean,  and  pleasant  flavor  and  odor,  score  perfect  (40).  De- 
duct for  objectionable  flavors  and  odors  according  to  conditions  found. 

COMPOSITION 

If  20  per  cent,  fat  or  above,  score  perfect  (25).  Deduct  i  point  for  each 
Yi  per  cent,  fat  below  20. 

BACTERIA 

Less  than   10,000  per  cubic  centimeter 20  (perfect). 

Over  10,000  aiiv.  less  than  25,000  per  cubic  centimeter 19 

Over  25,000  and  less  than  50,000  per  cubic  centimeter 18 

Over  50,000  and  less  than  75,000  per  cubic  centimeter 17 

Over  75,000  and  less  than    100,000  per  cubic  centimeter 16 

Deduct  i  point  for  each  25,000  above  100,000. 

When  an  unusually  large  number  of  liquefying  bacteria  are  present,  further 
deduction  should  be  made  according  to  conditions  tound. 

ACIDITY 

If  0.2  per  cent,  or  below,  score  perfect  (5).  Deduct  :  point  for  each  o.oi 
per  cent,  above  0.2.  (If  Mann's  test  is  used,  discontinue  adding  indicator  on 
first  appearance  of  a  pink  color.) 

APPEARANCE  OF  PACKAGE  AND  CONTENTS 

If  package  is  clean,  free  from  metal  parts,  and  no  foreign  matter  can  be 
detected  in  the  contents,  and  physical  condition  of  product  is  good,  score  per- 
fect (10).  Make  deductions  according  to  conditions. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SCORING 

COWS 

CONDITION. — Allow  2  if  in  good  flesh.     Deduct  according  to  conditions. 

HEALTH. — Allow  2  if  apparently  healthy.     Deduct  for  indications  of  disease. 

COMFORT. — Allow  2  for  good  conditions.  Deduct  i  for  poor  (a)*  or  no  bed- 
ding (b)  and  i  if  left  too  long  in  cold  outside  (c)  or  inside  (d)  of  stable. 

VENTILATION. — Allow  4  for  good  system — King  or  muslin  curtain  (o) — 2  for 
windows  inclining  inward  at  top  (b),  i  for  sliding  windows  (c),  and  nothing 
for  holes  in  ceiling  (d). 

CUBIC  SPACE  PER  Cow. — Allow  3  if  500  to  1,000  cubic  feet  per  cow,  2  for  less 
tnan  500  and  over  400,  i  for  less  than  400  and  over  300.  For  less  than 
300,  o.  Deduct  i  for  each  500  cubic  feet  over  i  ,000  under  winter  conditions. 
•The  letters  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  should  be  entered  on  score  card  to  show  condition 

of  dairy,  and  when  so  entered  should  always  indicate  a  deficiency. 


260  RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 

CLEANLINESS. — Allow  5  if  perfect.     Deduct  according  to  conditions. 

FOOD. — Allow  2  if  good.     Deduct  for  anything  musty  or  decomposed. 

WATER. — Allow  4  for  clean  running  water  in  trough  NEAR  stable  (a)  and  3  for 
same  INSIDE  stable  (b) ;  deduct  for  running  water  DISTANT  from  stable  ac- 
cording to  distance  (c) ;  deduct  i  for  still  water  or  water  pumped  by  hand 
(rf).  (Water  from  windmill  tanks  under  good  conditions  will  be  considered 
as  running  water.) 

STABLES 

LOCATION. — Allow  3  if  used  for  no  other  purpose  (a),  conveniently  located  (b). 

on    well-drained    ground    (c),    with    yard    protected    from    cold    winds    (d). 

Deduct    3    if    horses,    swine,    or    poultry    are   kept    in    stable.      Deduct    i    if 

poultry  are  allowed'in  stable  during  day. 
CONSTRUCTION. — Allow    i}4    for    floor    of    good    cement    (a)    or    equally    good 

material   (b)   in  good  condition    (c);   good  wood  floor    i    (d);   properly  con- 
structed gutter   YL    (e) ;   good  stall   (/) ;   swinging  stanchion    (g)   or  good  tie 

Y*    (h) ;  smooth  tight  ceiling  %    (i) ;  ceiling  proper  height  l/t    (/) ;  side  walls 

smooth    and    tight    l/t     (k);    convenient    box    stall    Yi     (/) ;    good    low  down 

manger  Y*   (m). 
CLEANLINESS.— Allow  4  for  a  washed   floor   (a),  2  if  well  swept   (b),   and   i   if 

well  scraped  (c).     Allow  i  for  clean  side  walls  (d),  i  for  clean  windows  (e), 

and  i  for  clean  ceilings  and  ledges  (f). 
LIGHT. — Allow   5   for  four  square   feet  of  unobstructed   glass  per   stanchion   or 

stall   (a)  and  evenly  distributed   (b).     Deduct  Yi   point  for  each  square  foot 

less  than  four;  deduct  2   for  uneven  distribution  of  light,  not  exceeding  2 

points. 
STABLE  AIR. — Allow  2  if  free  from  dust  and  odors  at  time  of  milking.     Deduct 

according  to  conditions. 
REMOVAL  OF  MANURE. — Allow  2  if  removed  daily  to  field  or  to  proper  pit  giving 

off  no  odor  to  stable.     Deduct  i   if  removed  to  yard  and  over  30  feet  from 

stable;  otherwise  allow  o. 
STABLE  YARD. — Allow  Y*  point  if  clean  fa),  and  Yi  point  if  well  drained  (b). 

MILK    HOUSE    AND    STORAGE 
LOCATION. — Allow  2  if  conveniently  located  (a),  away  from  hog  pen   (b),  privy 

(c),  or  other  source  of  contamination  (d).     Deduct  i   for  no  clear  air  space 

between  stable  and  milk  room. 
CONSTRUCTION. — Allow  2  for  tight,  sound  floor  (a),  walls  and  ceiling  (b),  well 

lighted   (c),  well  ventilated   (d),  and  free  from  flies  (e). 
EQUIPMENT. — Allow   i   point  for  hot  water  or  steam  for  cleansing  utensils  (a) ; 

Y*    point   for  cooler   in   good   condition    (b) ;    i    for   proper   narrow-top  milk 

pail   (c);   %    point  for  general  utensils  properly  constructed   (d). 
CLEANLINESS. — Allow  3  if  interior  is  clean.     Deduct  according  to  conditions. 
UTENSILS. — Allow  3  if  clean  (a);  2  for  proper  care  (b)   (inverted  in  pure  air). 

Otherwise,  o. 
WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    CLEANING.— Allow    5    if   abundant,   convenient,   and   pure. 

Deduct  according  to  conditions. 
STORAGE. — Allow  5  if  stored  at  50°  F.  or  below;  over  50°  and  not  over  55°  F., 

4;  over  55°  and  not  over  60°  F.,  3;  over  60°   F.,  o. 

MILKING  AND   HANDLING  MILK 

CLEANLINESS  OF  MILKING. — Allow  3  for  clean  suits  used  only  for  milking  (a) 
and  kept  in  a  clean  place  when  not  in  use  (b).  Allow  4  for  washing  udders 
and  teats  and  wiping  them  with  a  clean  towel  (c) :  2  if  wiped  with  moist 
cloth  only  (rf) ;  i  if  wiped  with  clean,  dry  cloth  (e) :  o  if  cleaning  is  done 
after  milker  sits  down  to  milk  or  if  no  attention  is  given.  Allow  3  if  milk- 
ing is  done  with  clean,  dry  han^s 

PRO_MPT  AND  EFFICIENT  COOLING. — Allow  5  if  cooled  immediately  after  each  cow 
is  milked.  Allow  5  if  cooled  to  50°  F.  or  below;  over  56°  and  not  over 
55°  F.,  4:  over  55°  and  not  over  60°  F.,  3;  over  60°  F.,  o. 

PROTECTION  DURING  TRANSPORTATION. — Allow  5  if  iced  and  covered:  4  if  cans 
are  jacketed  or  covered  with  clean,  wet  blanket;  2  for  dry  blanket  If  no 
protection,  o. 


RURAL    SCHOOL    AGRICULTURE 


26l 


UNITED  STATFS  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU  or  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 

Dairy  ItivhifH 


SANITARY  INSPECTION  OP  DAIRIES 


DAIRY  SCORE  CARD 

Owner  or  lessee  of  farm  : 

Town: Stale 


I'ot.il  No.  of  cows: No.  milking  : Quarts  of  milk  produced  daily:. .., 

Product  is  sold  at  wholesale— retail.     Name  and  address  of  dealer  to  whom  shipped  : 

Perm  it  No Dale  of  inspection  :. ,  JQO 


SCOKE 

REMARKS 

Perfect 

Allowed 

cows 

Health  :  Outward  appearance  

3 

4 
3 
5 

Food  

Water  

Total  

STABLES 

3 
5 

7 

5 

3 

Total  

MILK   HOUSE   AND  STORAGE 

*5 

Percent,  perfect  

3 
3 
5 
5 
5 

••'/•• 

Care  ind  cleanliness  of  utensils  

Storing  at  low  temperature  
Total  

MILKING   AND    HANDLING   MILK 

Cleanliness  of  milking  

Protection  during  transportation.... 
Total  
Total  

5 

'5 

Per  cent,  perfect  

QUESTION  i.    Has  the  herd  passed  the  tuberculin  test  within  a  year?     Yes.    No. 

QUESTION  a.    Has  the  water  supply  been  examined  for  contamination  ?     Yes.    No. 

QUESTION  3.  Is  there  any  case  of  contagious  disease  on  the  farm  that  is  not  properly 
isolated?  Yes.  No. 

Sign  ed : 

Insftctfr. 

NOTE. — If  conditions  are  so  exceptionally  bad  in  any  particular  as  to  be  inadequately 
expressed  by  a  score  of  o  jhe  inspector  wjjl  write  BAD  in  tb,e  column  of  Remarks, 
opposite  the  o. 


262 


RURAL   SCHOOL   AGRICULTURE 


UNITED   STATES  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU   OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 

DAIRY    DIVISION 


SCORE  CARD   FOR  MARKET  CREAM 


Exhibitor  • 
Address ... 


NUMERICAL  SCOR*, 


Flavor, 
4° 

Composition, 
25 

Bacteria, 
20 

Acidity, 
5 

Appearance  of 
package  and 
contents,  10 

Perfect  score, 
100 

Judge's  score 

DESCRIPTIVE  SCORE 


Flavor 

Composition 

Bacteria 

Acidity 

Package  and 
Contents 

Excellent 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Good 

Fair 

Fat...  per  cent. 

Total  

percent. 

Foreign  matter 

Bad 

Liquefiers  

Metal  parts 

Flat 

Unattractive 

Bitter 

Weedy 

Lumpy 

Garlic 

Silage 

Frothy 

Smothered 

Manure 

Other  taints 

Remarks 


Date. 


(Signature) 


Judge. 


RURAL  SCHOOL   AI.KK  ri.rruK  263 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SCORING 

MILK    ROOM 

. — Jf  not  connected  by  door  with  any  other  building,  and  surrounding! 
*ir  KOO.I,  jo-  *li'-n  connected  with  other  rooms,  such  as  kitchens,  stables, 
e».c.,  n;ake  deductions  a.-ccrdini?  td  conditions. 

CONSTRUCTION. — If  gooJ  c«rmci:t  floor,  and  tight,  smooth   walls  and  ceiling,  and 
good  drainage,  allow  .o,  deduct  for  cracked  or  decayed  floors,  imperfect  wall 
and  ceiling,  etc. 
CLEANLINESS. — If  perfectly   clean   throughout,  allow    15;   deduct   for  bad  odors, 

unclean  floor  and  walls,  cobwebs,  unnecessary  articles  stored  in  room,  etc. 
LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. — If  >•  ii.<ln-v  space  is  equivalent  to  15  per  cent,  or  more 
of  the  floor  space,  allow  5;  deduct   i   point  for  every  3  per  cent,   less  than 
the  above  amount. 
EQUIPMENT: 

Arrangement. — Allow  3  points  tV>r  <jood  arrangement;  if  some  of  the  equip- 
ment is  out  of  doors  or  so  plaocd  that  it  cannot  be  readily  cleaned,  make 
deductions  according  to  circumstancea. 
Condition. — If   in   good   repair,   allow   4  points;   make   deductions   for  rusty, 

worn-out,  or  damaged  apparatus. 
Construction — 

Sanitary:  If  seams  are  smooth,  and  all  parts  can  be  readily  cleaned,  allow 

a.     Deduct  for  poor  construction,  from  sanitary  standpoint. 
Durability:   If  made  strong  and  of  pood  material,   allow  2.     Deduct   for 

light  construction  and  poor  material. 

Cleanliness. — If  perfectly  clean,  allow  8  points;   make   deductions  according 
to  amount  of  apparatus  improperly  cleaned. 

MILK 

HANDLING. — If  milk  is  promptly  cooled  to  50°  F.  or  lower,  allow  12  points; 
or  if  pasteurized  at  a  temperature  of  149  F.  or  above  and  promptly  cooled 
to  50  or  lower,  allow  12  points.  Deduct  i  point  for  every  2°  above  50°. 
If  milk  is  pasteurized  imperfectly,  deduct  6  points.  If  milk  is  improperly 
bottled  or  otherwise  poorly  handled,  make  deductions  accordingly. 

STORAGE. — If  stored  at  a  temperature  of  45°  F.  or  below,  allow  8  points.  De- 
duct i  point  for  every  2°  above  45°. 

SALES   ROOM 

LOCATION. — If  exterior  surroundings   are   good   and   building   is    not   connected 

with   any   other  under   undesirable   conditions,   allow   2;   for   fair   conditions 

allow  i ;  poor  conditions,  o. 
CONSTRUCTION. — If  constructed  of  material  that  can  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary, 

allow  2;   for  fair  construction  allow   i;  poor  construction,  o. 
EQUIPMENT. — If   well   equipped   with   everything  necessary   for  the   trade,  allow 

2;   fair  equipment,    i  ;    poor  equipment,  o. 
CLEANLINESS. — If  perfectly  clean,  allow  4  points;  if  conditions  are  good,  2;  fair, 

i;  poor,  o. 


INDEX 


Absorption  .................. 

Adhesion  ....................... 

Alfalfa  ....................... 

Alkali  soils  ..................... 

Annuals  ........................ 

Apples,  decaying;  of  ........... 

forms  of  ..................  192, 


Ash,  composition  of  ........... 

of  plants  ..................  11, 

Assimilation  .......     ..    ...... 

Atmosphere,  composition  of.. 


5 

38 

117 

39 

191 

193 

194 

26 

178 

16 

13 


Babcock  tester  ............  189,  190 

Barley,  acreage,  production  of  44 

field  study  of  .................  36 

Beetles,  study  of  ...........  231,  232 

Biennials  .......................  39 

Birds,  value  of,  to  farmers  ----  33 

Bolls  of  cotton  .............  170,  171 

Bordeaux  mixture  ............  937 

Bottle,  killing  ..................  220 

Budding  ...  .............  .......  204 

time  for  ......................  205 

Bumblebee,  study  of  ..........  233 

Butter.   .  .....................  188 

Butterfly,  study  of  .............  235 

Cabbage  butterfly  .........  235,  236 

Calendar  for  spraying  ........  239 

Calyx  ..........................  72 

use  of  .........................  74 

Carbohydrates.  ............  182,  183 

Carbon  dioxide  ...............  61 

formed  by  germinating  seed  88 

percentage  in  atmosphere..  13 

properties  of  ...........  ......  14 

Cereals,  field  study  of  ........  36 

Change,  physical  and  chemical  3 

Chemical  elements  in  plants..  114 
Chlorophyll,      formation     of, 

prevented  by  cold  .......  25 

formed  in  sunlight  ...........  61 

Churning  ......................  188 

Cicada  ..........................  227 

Clay  ......  ........  96,  107,  108,  no 

Cleft  grafting  ............  199,  aoo 

Clover,  helping  the  farmer...  134 

relation  of  bumblebees  to...  333 

stand  of  ......................  37 

Cohesion  .....................  5 

Coleoptera  ...   ..............  218 

Composition,  farm  products 

178,  179 


PACK 

Composition,  feeding  stuffs. . .  180 

of  corn 179 

Condensation 7,  10 

Conditions  of  matter i 

Copper  sulphate 337 

Corn,  brace  roots  of 53 

compared  with  other  cereals  36 

comparison  of  kernels 143 

composition  of 179 

effect  of  detasseling 152,  153 

effect  of  smut  upon  the  yield  157 

mechanical  selection  ot. ....  130 

method  of  harvesting  of 158 

moisture  in 1 54 

per  cent,  of  corn  and  cob...  132 

pollination  of 147 

tasseling  and  silking  period 

of 145 

testing  seed  of 126 

transmitting  characteristics  139 

types  of 133 

variation  in  individual  ears.  128 

Corolla 71 

use  of  74 

Cotton,  botanical  study  of....  166 
comparison  of  large,  medium 

and  small  plants 170 

ideal  plant  172.  17^.  174,  175 

improvement  by  selection 

176,  177 

proportion  of  parts  of  plant  168 

variation  in  number  of  bolls  170 

Crops,  rotation  of 34 

summary  of 46 

Cuttings,  hardwood »c6 

kinds  of toj 

Cutworm 217 

Cyanide  bottle 220 

De  Candolle's  classification  of 

plants 28 

Deliquescent  trees 69 

Detasseling  corn 152,  153 

Diptera 217 

Dragon-fly,  study  of 335 

Emulsion,  kerosene 238 

Evaporation n,  99,  105 

Excurrent  trees 69 

Fertilizer,  cost  of 121 

ingredients 115 

problems  of 121 

Flour 161 

Flowers,  parts  of 71 


266 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Flowers,  relation  of,  to  insects  74 

strawberry 78,  80 

uses  of  parts  of 74 

Formalin 187 

!•  ruit,  thinning  of 195,  196 


PACK 
Mulches 105 


Net,  insect 219,  220 

Neuroptera 216 

Nitrate  of  soda 121 

Nitric  acid,  constituent  of  at- 

Germination 84                  mosphere 13 

affected  by  freezing. g->           effect  on  copper 17 

affected  by  light 82        Nitrogen,  as  fertilizer 

affected  by  types  of  soil..   ..      83                                              115,  118,  122,  180 

standards  of 85           -free extract 178,  179 

Gluten 161           gatherers  of 34 

Goodale's  contrast  of  assimila-                   percent,  in  atmosphere 13 

tion and  respiration  in  plants      16        Nutritive  ratio 182 

Grafting,  cleft 199,    200       Kymphs 224 

tools 199 

wax 198       Oats,  acreage,  production  of..  44 

whip 201           field  study  ot 36 

Grasshopper,  study  of 223,    224           quality  of. 165 

smut  of 164 

Harrows,  types  of 40       Osmosis 18,  19 

uses  of 40        Ovary 71 

Harvest-fly 227        Ovipositor 224 

Hay,  acreage,  production  of..      44        Oxygen,  per  cent,  in  atmos- 

for  horses 181                   phere 13 

Hemiptera 217        Ozone 13 

Herbarium  specimens 240 

Hornet 218        Paris  green 238 

Humus 108,     109        Pasteurizing 188 

Hygroscopic  moisture 102        Perennials 29 

Hymenoptera  218        Petals 73 

Phosphoric  acid 115,  119,  122 

Improvement,  school  grounds                Pistils 71,  73 

211,  214,    215           useof 74,  79 

Inoculation  of  soils  for  alfalfa      38        Plants,  classification  of 28,  29 

Insects,  destroyed  by  birds.. .      33           effect  of  cold  on 94 

ordersof 216,217,    -218           food  for 93,  94 

preparation  for  collecting. ..    219           forms  of  food  used  by i.  a 

preservation  of  221           herbarium  specimens     240 

relation  of,  to  plants 76          influenced    by    different 

Inventory  of  the  farm 48                 amounts  of  air  22 

resistant  to  drought 23 

Judging  apples 194           selection  of  food  of  17 

struggle  for  existence  of....  31 

Kerosene  emulsion 238           transpiration  of  water  by.. .  59 

Pollen       .                , 73 

Lawn 214,    215        Pollination  of  corn     ..147,  148,  149 

Leaves,  effects  of  sunlight  on.      60        Potash  115.  121 

Legumes  125        Potassium  cyanide  220 

Lepidoptera 217        Potatoes,  culture  of 43 

Lime-sulphur  wash 238  effect  of  number  of  eyes  on 

Litmus  paper 98                   yield 42 

Propagating,  grapes 206 

Map,  home  grounds 213,    214           trees ' 202 

Matter,  conditions  of     i        Protein 183 

organic  and  inorganic 26        Pruning 210 

Milk,   flavor   of,    affected    by 

feeds  183        Questioning  the  soil 122 

pasteurizing 186,    187 

souring  of.. 186,    187        Raspberries.... 197 

test  for  formalin 187        Rations  for  animals 182 

Moisture,  in  corn  and  cob 154        Respiration  of  plants ..  16 

in  plants 114        Rolling  the  soil 09 

kinds  iu  the  soil xoa       Root-hairs 57 


INDEX 


267 


PACK  PACK 

Roots,  direction  of  growth  of.  55       Spraying,  calendar  for 139 

forms  of 51,  53,  S3            material         a^7,  338 

method  of  growth 50        Stamen 71,  73 

ROM  cut ti on 80         use  of  7«,  79 

Rotation  of  crops 34        Stock,  grafting 198,  aoi 

Rye,  acreage,  production  of  . .  44 

rieKl  study  of 36        Tasnels 145,  146 

Temperature,  for  churning. ..  188 

Salt  solutions  117           of  soils 9,,  100,  101 

School  grounds,  improvement                Testing,  Bilk 189 

of 213,214  215            seeds    84.  1*6 

Scion,  grafting 202        ThinninK  fruit 195 

UK  alfalfa 37        Transpiration     59 

Seedlings 31        Transplanting  trees 2^8 

Seeds,  depth  of  planting  of....  87           rules  for 208,  209 

destroyed  by  birds 33        Trees,  annual  rings 64 

forming  carbon  dioxide 88           forms  of 69 

germination  of,  affected  by                  transplanting  of 208 

age 84 

large  and  small  value  of  ...  90  Value,  farm  product*...  .44.  45,  48 

modes  of  dissemination  of. .  27           of  missing  hill 155,  156 

Nature's  planting  of 30 

number  produced 32       Wax,  grafting 198 

Sepal        71,  71  Wheat,  acreage,  production  of  44 

Soils,  acidity  of 98           field  study  of 36 

air  in 06  relation   between   length   of 

color  of 01  straw  and  yield  of  grain  162 

leacnine  of 10  relation   between  length  of 

moisture  of 02  straw    and    number    of 

types  of .,..95,  12                 stalks  per  acre 163 


STANDARD  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED   BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ASHLAND  BUILDING  PEOPLE'S  GAS  BUILDING 

315-32)   Fourth  Avenue  150    Michigan  Avenue 


Any  of  these  books  will  be  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  to 
any  part  of  the  world,  on  receipt  of  catalog  price.  We  are 
always  happy  to  correspond  with  our  patrons,  and  cordially 
invite  them  to  address  us  on  any  matter  pertaining  to  rural 
boofe.  Send  for  our  large  illustrated  catalog,  free  on  appli- 
cation. 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

By  ALFRED  VIVIAN.  There  is  no  subject  of  more  "ital 
importance  to  the  farmer  than  that  of  the  best  method 
of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  very  evident 
decrease  in  the  fertility  of  those  soils  which  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years,  combined  -with 
the  increased  competition  and  the  advanced  price  of  labor, 
have  convinced  the  intelligent  farmer  that  the  agriculture 
of  the  future  must  be  based  upon  more  rational  practices 
than  those  which  have  been  followed  in  the  past.  We 
have  felt  for  some  time  that  there  was  a  place  for  a 
brief,  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive,  treatise  on 
this  important  subject  of  Soil  Fertility.  Professor  Vivian's 
experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  short  winter  courses  has 
admirably  fitted  him  to  present  this  matter  in  a  popular 
style.  In  this  little  book  he  has  given  the  gist  of  the 
subject  in  plain  language,  practically  devoid  of  technical 
and  scientific  terms.  It  is  pre-eminently  a  "First  Book," 
and  will  be  found  especially  valuable  to  those  who  desire 
an  introduction  to  the  sub'ect.  and  who  intend  to  do  subse- 
quent reading.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  265  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.00 

The  Study  of  Corn 

By  PROF.  V.  M.  SHOESMITH.  A  most  helpful  book  to  all 
fanners  and  students  interested  in  the  selection  and  im- 
provement of  corn.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  from  photo- 
'raphs,  all  of  which  carry  their  own  story  and  contribute 
their  part  in  making  pictures  and  text  matter  a  clear,  con- 
cise and  interesting  study  of  corn.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches, 
loo  pages.  Cloth ...  Net,  $0.50 

(1) 


The  Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle 

By  PROF.  THOMAS  SHAW.  The  place  for  this  book  will 
be  at  once  apparent  when  it  is  stated  that  it  is  the  first 
book  that  has  ever  been  written  which  discusses  the  man- 
agement and  feeding  of  cattle,  from  the  birth  of  the  calf 
until  it  has  fulfilled  its  mission  in  life,  whether  on  the 
block  or  at  the  pail.  The  book  is  handsomely  printed  on 
fine  paper,  from  large,  clear  type.  Fully  illustrated.  5^x8 
inches.  496  pages.  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Farmer's  Veterinarian 

By  CHARLFS  WILLIAM  BURKETT.  This  book  abounds  in 
helpful  suggestions  and  valuable  information  for  the  most 
successful  treatment  of  ills  and  accidents,  and  disease 
troubles.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  diseases  of  farm 
stock;  containing  brief  and  popular  advice  on  the  nature, 
cause  and  treatment  of  disease,  the  common  ailments  and 
the  care  and  management  of  stock  when  sick.  It  is 
profusely  illustrated,  containing  a  number  of  halftone 
illustrations,  and  a  great  many  drawings  picturing  diseases, 
their  symptoms  and  familiar  attitudes  assumed  by  farm 
animals  when  affected  with  disease,  and  presents,  for  the 
first  time,  a  plain,  practical  and  satisfactory  guide  for 
farmers  who  are  interested  in  the  common  diseases  of  the 
farm.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  288  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $1.50. 

First  Lessons  in  Dairying 

By  HUBERT  E.  VAN  NORMAN.  This  splendid  little  book 
has  been  written  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  to  fill 
a  place  in  dairy  literature  long  needed.  It  is  designed 
primarily  as  a  practical  guide  to  successful  dairying,  an 
elementary  text-book  for  colleges  and  for  use  especially 
in  short-course  classes.  It  embodies  underlying  principles 
involved  in  the  handling  of  milk,  delivery  to  factory,  ship- 
ping station,  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  on  the  farm. 
It  is  written  in  a  simple,  popular  way,  being  free  from  tech- 
nical terms,  and  is  easily,  understood  by  the  average  farm 
boy.  The  book  is  just  the  thing  for. the  every-day  dairy- 
man, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  farmer  in  the 
country.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $0.50. 

A  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide 

By  H.  E.  Ross.  While  the  book  is  intended  primarily 
for  use  in  the  laboratory,  it  should  be  of  value  to  the 
practical  dairyman.  The  time  has  come  when  the  suc- 
cessful dairyman  must  study  his  business  from  a  purely 
scientific  point  of  view,  and  in  this  book  the  scientific 
principles,  upon  which  dairy  industry  is  based,  are  stated 
clearly  and  simply,  and  wherever  it  is  possible,  these  prin- 
ciples are  illustrated  by  practical  problems  and  examples. 
90  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  Net,  $0.50 

(3) 


Profitable  Stock  Raising 

By  CLAKINCT  A  SIIAMII..  This  book  covers  fully  the 
principles  of  lirreding  and  feeding  for  both  fat  stock  and 
dairying  typf.  It  tells  of  sheep  and  mutton  raising,  hot 
house  laml»,  the  swine  industry  and  the  horse  market. 
Finally,  he  tells  of  the  preparation  of  stock  for  the  market 
and  how  to  prepare  it  so  that  it  will  bring  a  high  market 
price.  I.i^e  stock  is  the  most  important  feature  of  farm 
life,  and  statistics  show  a  production  far  short  of  the 
actual  requirement-.  There  are  many  problem-  to  \><- 
faced  in  the  profitable  production  of  stock,  and  these  are 
fully  and  comprehensively  covered  in  Mr.  Shamel's  new 
book.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  288  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.50 

The  Business  of  Dairying 

By  C.  B.  LANE.  The  author  of  this  practical  little  book 
is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  manner  in  which 
he  has  treated  so  important  a  subject.  It  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  dairy  students,  producers  and  handlers 
of  milk,  and  all  who  make  dairying  a  business.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  present  in  a  clear  and  concise  manner  various 
business  methods  and  systems  which  will  help  the  dairy- 
man to  reap  greater  profits.  This  book  meets  the  needs 
of  the  average  dairy  farmer,  and  if  carefully  followed  will 
lead  to  successful  dairying.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an 
elementary  textbook  for  colleges,  and  especially  in  short- 
course  classes.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  300  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.25 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Buttermaking 

By  CHAS  A.  PUBLOW.  This  book  is  entirely  different 
from  the  usual  type  of  dairy  books,  and  is  undoubtedly  in 
a  class  by  itself.  The  entire  subject  of  butter-making  in 
all  its  branches  has  been  most  thoroughly  treated,  and 
many  new  and  important  features  have  been  added.  The 
tests  for  moisture,  salt  and  acid  have  received  special 
attention,  as  have  also  the  questions  on  cream  separa- 
tion, pasteurization,  commercial  starters,  cream  ripening, 
cream  overrun,  marketing  of  butter,  and  creamery  man- 
agement. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $0.50 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Milk  and  Milk  Testing 

By  CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW,  and  HUGH  C.  TROY.  A  book  th.-t 
no  student  in  the  dairy  industry  can  afford  to  be  without. 
No  other  treatise  of  its  kind  is  available,  and  no  book  of 
its  size  gives  so  much  practical  and  useful  information  in 
the  study  of  milk  and  milk  products.  Illustrated.  5x7 
inches.  100  pages.  Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(3) 


Soils 

By  CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT,  Director  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  The  most  complete  and 
popular  work  of  the  kind  ever  published.  As  a  rule,  a 
book  of  this  sort  is  dry  and  uninteresting,  but  in  this  case 
it  reads  like  a  novel.  The  author  has  put  into  it  his  in- 
dividuality. The  story  of  the  properties  of  the  soils,  their 
improvement  and  management,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
the  problems  of  crop  growing  and  crop  feeding,  make  this 
book  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher. 
Illustrated.  303  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth.  .  Net,  $1.25 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  PAMMEL.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
to  several  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  the  United 
States,  causjd  by  weeds  stimulate  us  to  adopt  a  better 
system  of  agriculture.  The  weed  question  is,  therefore 
a  most  important  and  vital  one  for  American  farmen 
This  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  treat  his  field  to 
remove  weeds.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings  made  expressly  for  this  work,  and 
will  prove  invaluable  to  every  farmer,  land  owner,  gar- 
dener and  park  superintendent.  5x7  inches.  300  pages. 
Cloth Net,  $1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON  and  L.  W.  CHASE.  Farm  Machinery 
and  Farm  Motors  is  the  first  American  book  published 
on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery  since  that  written  by 
J.  J.  Thomas  in  1867.  This  was  before  the  development 
of  many  of  the  more  important  farm  machines,  and  the 
general  application  of  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  indispensable  in  present-day 
farming  operations,  and  a  practical  book  like  Farm  Ma- 
chinery and  Farm  Motors  will  fill  a  much-felt  need.  The 
book  has  been  written  from  lectures  used  by  the  authors 
before  their  classes  for  several  years,  and  which  were  pre- 
pared from  practical  experience  and  a  thorough  review  of 
the  literature  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Although  written 
primarily  as  a  text-book,  it  is  equally  useful  for  the  prac- 
tical farmer.  Profusely  illustrated.  5^x8  inches.  520 
pages.  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  DONDLINGER.  This  book  comprises  a  complete 
study  of  everything  pertaining  to  wheat.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  student  of  economic  as  well  as  agricultural  condi- 
tions, well  fitted  by  the  broad  experience  in  both  practical 
and  theoretical  lines  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  a  condensed 
form.  It  is  designed  for  the  farmer,  the  teacher,  and  the 
student  as  well.  Illustrated.  5j^x8  inches.  370  pages. 
Cloth.  ...  Net,  $2.00 

(4) 


The  Cereals  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT,  M.S.,  D.Agri.,  Professor  of  Agron- 
omy, Cornell  University.  If  you  r;n>c  live  acres  of  any  kind 
of  grain  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without  this  book.  It  is  in 
CMTV  way  the  best  book  on  the  subject  that  has  ever  lu-i-n 
written.  It  treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every 
grain  crop  raised  in  America  in  a  thoroughly  practical  and 
accurate  manner.  The  subject-matter  includes  a  comprehen- 
sive and  succinct  treatise  of  wheat,  maize,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
rice,  sorghum  (kafir  corn)  and  buckwheat,  as  related  particu- 
larly to  American  conditions.  First-hand  knowledge  has  been 
the  policy  of  the  author  in  his  work,  and  every  crop  treated  is 
presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of  the  plant.  If  you 
have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best  that  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages.  55/2x8 
inches.  Cloth $1.75 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT.  This  book  is  exactly  what  its  title 
indicates.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  student  and 
teacher  who  wishes  all  the  latest  and  most  important  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  forage  and  fiber  crops.  Like  its  famous 
companion,  "The  Cereals  in  America,"  by  the  same  author,  it 
treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every  one  of  the 
forage  and  fiber  crops.  With  this  book  in  hand,  you  have 
the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  information  available.  Illus- 
trated. 428  pages.  5 J4x8  inches.  Cloth $1.75 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa 

History,  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
and  Fertilizer.  The  appearance  of  the  Hon.  F.  D.  COBURN'S 
little  book  on  Alfalfa  a  few  years  ago  has  been  a  profit  revela- 
tion to  thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  still  more  information  on  the  subject 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  the  present  volume,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  authoritative,  complete  and  valuable  work 
on  this  forage  crop  published  anywhere.  It  is  printed  on  fine 
paper  and  illustrated  with  many  full-page  photographs  that 
were  taken  with  the  especial  view  of  their  relation  to  the  text. 
336  pages.  654  x  9  inches.  Bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp- 
ing. It  is  unquestionably  the  handsomest  agricultural  refer- 
ence book  that  has  ever  been  issued.  Price,  postpaid,  .  $2.00 

Clean  Milk 

By  S.  D.  BELCHER,  M.D.  In  this  book  the  author  sets  forth 
practical  methods  for  the  exclusion  of  bacteria  from  milk, 
and  how  to  prevent  contamination  of  milk  from  the  stable 
to  the  consumer.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  146  pages. 
ClPth $100 

(5) 


Bean  Culture 

..  By  GLENN  C.  SEVEY,  B.S.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  pro- 
duction and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  oi 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value ;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  BEATTIE.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  en- 
gaged in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving 
a  clear  conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  The 
work  is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in 
a  window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  WILL  W.  TRACY.  The  author  has  rounded  up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  togetucr.  It  is  no  second- 
hand work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practic; 
experiences  of  the  best-posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the 
world.  No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
book.  Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes, 
the  reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.  Illustrated.  150  pages.  5  x  7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  SAMUEL  FRASER.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  growej  and 
to  the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  Amer- 
ica. Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where 
there  is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard 
purposes,  and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will 
meet  with  a  warm  welcome.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5  x  7 

inches.     Cloth $0.50 

(6) 


Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables 

F'y  (".  I..  AI.I.I  \.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  various 
types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli.  Hn; 
sprouts,  kale,  collards  ami  kobl-rabi.  An  explanation  is  given 
of  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  alid  general  man- 
agement pertaining  t<>  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this 
each  class  is  treated  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter 
on  seed  raising  is  probably  the  most  autln>ritati\e  treatise  on 
this  subject  ever  published.  Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this 
class  of  vegetables  are  given  due  attention.  Illustrated.  u'> 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 


Asparagus 

By  F.  M.  HEXAMER.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in 
America  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  aspara- 
gus for  home  use  as  well  as  for  market.  It  is  a  practice' 
and  reliable  treatise  on  the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the 
plants,  selection  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting,  cultiva- 
tion, manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  packing,  marketing,  canning 
and  drying,  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases  and  every  re- 
quirement to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  emphasis  be- 
ing given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and  money 
crop.  Illustrated.  174  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  $0.50 


The  New  Onion  Culture 

By  T.  GRFINF.R.  Rewritten,  greatly  enlarged  and  brought 
up  to  date.  A  new  method  of  growing  onions  of  largest  size 
and  yield,  on  less  land,  than  can  be  raised  by  the  old  plan. 
Thousands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  and  many  experiment 
stations  have  given  it  practical  trials  which  have  proved  a 
success.  A  complete  guide  in  growing  onions  with  the  great- 
est profit,  explaining  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Illustrated 
5x7  inches.  140  pages.  Cloth $0.50 


The  New  Rhubarb  Culture 

A  complete  guide  to  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part 
I — By  J.  E.  MORSE,  the  well-known  Michigan  trucker  and 
originator  of  the  now  famous  and  extremely  profitable  new 
methods  of  dark  forcing  and  held  culture.  Part  II — Com- 
piled by  G.  B.  FISKE.  Other  methods  practiced  by  the  most 
experienced  market  gardeners,  greenhouse  men  and  experi- 
menters in  all  parts  of  America.  Illustrated.  130  pages. 
5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

(7) 


Alfalfa 

By  F.  D.  COBURN.  Its  growth,  uses,  and  feeding  value. 
The  fact  that  alfalfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without 
reseeding,  it  goes  on  yielding  two,  three,  four,  and  sometimes 
five  cuttings  annually  for  five,  ten,  or  perhaps  100  years;  and 
that  either  green  or  cured  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  information  upon  its  pro- 
duction and  uses  of  unusual  interest.  Such  information  is 
given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America,  by  the  highest 
authority.  Illustrated.  164  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

Ginseng,    Its    Cultivation,    Harvesting,    Marketing 
and  Market  Value 

By  MAURICE  G.  KAINS,  with  a  short  account  of  its  history 
and  botany.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seeds  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  and  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en- 
larged. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Landscape  Gardening 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH,  professor  of  horticulture,  university  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  paragraph  is 
short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect  clearness  to  the 
discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of  the  natural  difficulty 
of  presenting  abstract  principles  the  whole  matter  is  made 
entirely  plain  even  to  the  inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated. 
152  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Hedges,  Windbreaks,  Shelters  and  Live  Fences 

By  E.  P.  POWELL.  A  treatise  on  the  planting,  growth 
and  management  of  hedge  plants  for  country  and  suburban 
homes.  It  gives  accurate  directions  concerning  hedges ;  how 
to  plant  and  how  to  treat  them ;  and  especially  concerning 
windbreaks  and  shelters.  It  includes  the  whole  art  of  making 
a  delightful  home,  giving  directions  for  nooks  and  balconies, 
for  bird  culture  and  for  human  comfort.  Illustrated.  140 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth x $0.50 

(8) 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


D29r 

cop. 2      Davis    - 


Kural   school 
agriculture 


A    000  941  930    0 


.  UBRARY 


